MODULE 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Anabolic
A
small molecules assemble into large ones
* energy is required
2
Q
Catabolic
A
large/complex molecules break down into smaller ones
* energy is released
3
Q
Oil Rig
A
oxidation involves loss, reduction involves gain
4
Q
NAD+/FAD involved in a lot of ____ reactions
A
catabolic
5
Q
ATP abbrev.
A
adenosine triphosphate
6
Q
ADP abbrev.
A
adenosine diphosphate
7
Q
Heterotrophy
A
Organisms that eat other organisms or preformed organic matter
8
Q
Autotrophy
A
Create their own food from inorganic nutrients
* Photosynthesis
9
Q
Light reaction: cyclic photophosphorylation
A
Uses sunlight to make proton gradient
* Leads to formation of ATP
Evolutionary advantage over heterotrophs
* Werent dependant on depletable resources
10
Q
Light reaction: non-cyclic photophosphorylation
A
Built on the earlier version
Uses sunlight to make ATP and NADPH
* Have everything they need to convert CO2 to organic compounds (glucose)
* Evolutionary advantage over cyclic photophosphorylation
11
Q
Proton pumping
A
High proton in Lumen, low in stroma
Travel to stroma through ATP Synthase
Diffuse back through it
Catalysed the phosphorylation of Pi onto ADP -> ATP
12
Q
Endosymbiotic origin of photosynthetic eukaryotes
A
Engulfed prokaryotes > developed symbioses > lived as individual organelles > eukaryotes
13
Q
3 stages of calvin cycle
A
- Carboxylation
- Reduction
- Regeneration
14
Q
Carboxylation
A
1st
Carboxylation of RuBP with CO2 pulled by Rubisco > 6C molecule is unstable > 2x 3-PGA
15
Q
Regeneration (calvin)
A
2nd
ATP + NADPH used to change 3-PGA into G3P
16
Q
Reduction
A
3rd
5/6 G3P stay in cycle > modified with ATP to make more RuBP
17
Q
Photorespiration
A
Fixation of oxygen by rubisco
* 2-phosphoglycolate
* Detoxified by Chloraplast, Mitochondrion, Peroxisome
* ATP expended, CO2 released
18
Q
C4
A
Adjustments exploiting PEP carboxylase to concentrate CO2 around Rubisco
19
Q
CAM
A
Saves water
* stomata only open at night
* humidity is higher
* CO2 stored as C4 in vacuole
20
Q
In what kind of plants do you tend to see CAM photosynthesis
A
Plants that live in dry climate
* E.g. cactus
21
Q
Aerobic respiration
A
- Glycolysis
- Link reaction
- Krebs cycle
- Oxidative phosphorylation
22
Q
where does respiration occur?
A
Mitochondria
1. Gly - outside
2. Kreb’s - matrix
3. ETC - inner membrane
23
Q
Glycolysis
A
Sugar splitting
1. Energy investment
2. Energy payoff
24
Q
Net output of Glycolysis
A
- 2 ATP
- 2 pyruvate + H2O
- 2 NADH + 2 protons
25
Krebs cycle
*Remove* **electrons** from *products* of glycolysis
* Pyruvate > Acetyl CoA
* small *ATP* produced
* **3** **NADH** + **H**+
* **1** **FADH2**
* **2 CO2**
26
ETC
NADH -> **NAD+ + H+** & FADH2 -> **FAD + 2H+**
* *Pump* protons into IM space
* **High** conc. Of H+ in **IM space**
* **Low** conc. in **matrix**
* Want to *flow* **back**
* Only way, through **ATP synthase**
* Produce **ATP**
27
Special adaptations to increase SA of inner membrane
* **Thylakoids** stacked into granum - in *stroma*
* Elaborate **folding** into crista - in *matrix*
28
AOX and UCP
**Downregulate** production of **ATP** when the plant already has enough
* AOX - **bypass**
* UCP - **uncoupling** protein, *diffuse* back
29
Composition of the Body
* **60**% **water**
* **18**% **protein**
* **16**% **fat**
* **6**% Carbohydrates, minerals etc. micro nutrients
*Changes* as animal gets older
30
Condensation/dehydration of carbs
**CON**DENSATION - **ANA**
**HYDRO**LYSE - **CATA**
31
Glycogen is stored many places including...
* **LIVER**: breaks *down* carbs, releases sugar into *bloodstream*
* **MUSCLES**: trap sugar within *individual* muscles cells, do not share energy
32
What hormone causes catabolism of glycogen?
glucagon
33
When you eat food, your blood stream does not absorb protein...
Absorbs **amino acids**
* **Food** broken *down* to AA
* *Absorbed* in **villus**
* *Brought* to **blood**
34
Amino acid structure
**Amino** group (**NH2**)
**Carboxyl** group (**COOH**)
**R** group
35
Non essential amino acids
The cell **can** *make* it itself
36
Essential amino acids
**Cannot** be manufactured *in body*
* must be in **food**
37
All **essential** amino acid components of **protein** are made by...
**Plants**
* Every *animal* has to derive the essential amino acids from *plants*
* *Carnivore* eats *herbivore* who has eaten this amino acid
38
Fat is stored in ____ tissue
**Adipose**
* **Omentum** - large *flat* adipose tissue layer nestling on the *surface* of the **intra-peritoneal** organs
39
Is phosphate hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
**5** bonds, 2 O *dont* have H attached
* Hydro**phillic**
40
Omentum role
1. **Protection**
2. **Storage**
3. *Release* energy for **metabolism** at a later stage
41
Adenosine triphosphate
*Stores* a lot of **energy** from *breaking* food molecules
* **Ribose** sugar (5 carbon)
* Base **adenine** - rings with nitrogen
* **3 phosphate** molecules attached
* **-** charge on *oxygen*
* When it *loses* P generates **energy**
42
Fats, proteins and carbohydrates are interconvertible?
True
43
Endocrine cells
Respond to **homeostatic** signals and release **hormones**
* Travel through **bloodstream** > affect *physiology* of cells.
44
Fibroblasts
**Repair wounds**
* *Move* to site of injury, lay down **fibrin** and *close* down wound
45
Prokaryotes
*Single* cell, **no** membrane bound nucleus
46
Bacteria
**Peptidoglycan** (sugar and amino acid lattice) major constituent of *cell wall*
47
Archaea
Do **not** have *peptidoglycan* as major constituent of cell wall, often live in **extreme** conditions
48
Protists
*Single*-celled **eukaryotes**
49
Animal plasma membranes are stabilised with _____
cholesterol
50
Cholesterol
* Hydro*phillic* (attarcted to **phosphate heads**)
* Hydro*phobic* (attracted to **fatty acid tails**)
* **Side chain**
51
Evolution of nucleus (theory)
*Invagination*
* *Folds* in (**nuclear envelope**)
* More *pockets* (*ER*)
52
Evolution of the mitochondria (theory)
Absorb **aerobic prokaryotic** cell
* *Membrane* derived from **eukarotic** cell
* Now has *enzymes* to break down **pyruvic acid** (energy)
53
Fibrous proteins
* Make up **cytoskeleton** - shape, hang rest of *tissues* on
* **Pathways**
54
Key differences in animal cell
No **cell** wall
No big **vacuole**
No **chloroplasts**
55
Key differences in plant cell
**Cell wall**
**Chloro**plasts
Huge *central* **vacuole**
56
The Plant Cell Wall
Made of **cellulose**
* Long *strings*, carbohydrate
* Good for *structure*
57
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is connected to the ____
Nucleus
* Nucleus has pores
58
Describe the flow of information from DNA to protein in the context of the cell.
**Nucleus** > DNA > tran*scription* > **mRNA** > **Ribosome** > tran*slation* > protein.
59
Flagellum
**Propels** bacteria
* Harvest power of **H ions**, passing through *channels* in the *apparatus*
60
Vesicles carry protein cargo
Come from **ribosomes** in *rough* ER
* Travel into **vesicles**
* Travel into *cis-face* of **golgi** apparatus
* **Disengage** from *trans* face
* **Exo**cytosis: Take to **exterior** of cell , *fuse* with membrane
* **Endo**cytosis: proteins **bind** to surface of plasma membranes - *receptors*, folds in, draw into cell
61
When a protein is fully drawn into a cell
*Endo*some
62
What happens to protein that has entered the cell?
Fed to **golgi** or **lysosome** - *break down*
63
F0, F1 complexes
*Mito*
* take molecule of **ADP** and **phosphate** > **ATP**
64
Name 3 major biological functions of mitochondria
* Production of **ATP** (ATP synthesis)
* **Steroid** synthesis
* **Apoptosis** - *packaged* then *eaten* by **immune** system
65
Mitochondria are often attached to
**Microtubules** of the cytoskeleton
* **Pathways**
* **Hold** in place
* **Actin** & **myosin**
* **Motor** proteins
66
Motor proteins
1. Portion **attaches** to *mitochondria/vesicles*
2. **Feet**
67
3 components of the cytoskeleton
1. Micro**filaments** - made of *actin*
2. Micro**tubules** - made of *tubulin*, train tracks
3. **Intermediate filaments** - made of various proteins, *strong*, reinforcing, *resist stress*, often keratin.
68
Passive diffusion
**Semi**-permeable membrane
* molecules *and* charged molecules
69
Powered transport
Push molecules *against* a **gradient**
* ATP
* **Phosphorylation** event
* Top *close off*, bottom *open* up
70
Phagocytosis
*Engulf* **bacterial** cell
* Close over
71
Pinocytosis
**Drinking**
* **Fluids** along with *dissolved* molecules
72
Receptors in endocytosis
Specifically take in **one** type of molecule
* recognise **3D** structure
* **Proteins** line up *under* membrane - help *bud off*
73
Most multicellular animals are made out of just 4 major tissue types
1. **Epi**thelium 🦶🏻
2. **Connect**ive 🪢
3. **Nervous** 🧠
4. **Muscle** 💪🏼
74
Connective tissue
1. **Fibres**
2. **Cells**
3. **Ground substance** (proteins, water, slats, minerals, cells)
*Varying* densities
Blood - **coagulate**
75
Epithelial tissue
Covering on all **internal** and **external** surfaces of your body, lines body **cavities** and **hollow** organs
76
Muscle
1. **Cardiac**
2. **Smooth** - *hollow* organ
3. **Skeletal** - voluntary, *movement*
77
Epithelia is anchored to the ____
**Basal lamina**
* Surround *muscle* and *fat* tissues
78
Desmosome
Mediate **cell-cell contact** and *strong* **adhesion**.
79
Hemidesmosome
One *plaque* on the **inside** portion of the cell
* Use **connecting** proteins to *anchor* down directly into **basal lamina**
80
Cancer originates in ____ tissue
**Epithelial**
* **Basal lamina** can hold back **metastasis** for a while
81
Nervous tissue
Coordinated **movement** and **behaviour**
82
Use ____ which signal cells to change their physiology
hormones
83
Steroid hormones
* Go *straight through* plasma **membrane**
* **Receptor** in **cyto**plasm/**nucleus**
* *Produce* a **protein**
84
Neurotransmitters
*Binding* to a **receptor** coupled to a **channel**
85
Protein hormones
* Interact with receptor *outside* of cell, in plasma **membrane**
* Interact with *series* of **relay proteins**
86
The stress response
1. **CRH** enters bloodstream that connects *hypothalamus* to **pituitary**
2. Stimulates **ACTH** > into bloodstream
3. Reaches **adrenal** cortex, releases **cortisol**
4. Goes into fat supplies > *breakdown* (**fuel**)
87
Plant cell gradients
*Hyper* - Plasmolysed
*Iso* - Flaccid
*Hypo* - Turgid (**optimal**)
88
A260:A280 values and purity
* **1.8 - 2** = pure **DNA**
* **<** 1.8 = **protein** contamination
* **>** 2 **RNA** contamination
89
A260:A230 values and purity
* **>** 1.8 = pure **nucleic acid**
* **<** 1.8 = **organic compunds**
90
The stress response is a ____ feedback loop
Negative
91
Steroids are hydro... and proteins are hydro...
1. Phobic
2. Phillic
92
Cytoplasmic reticulum
Hold lots of **calcium**
* Send message to *release* this to activate muscles
* Go to **actin** binding sites
