module 2 Flashcards
(124 cards)
1
Q
What does good nutrition give us or help us
A
Better health Strong immune system Become I'll less often Help you learn more effectively Stronger More productive
2
Q
Name 7 nutrients and their role
A
Carbohydrates
Source and supply of energy
Lipids
Source and supply of energy. Are also used as electric conductors in nerve cells
Proteins
For growth and repair of muscle and body tissues
Minerals
Inorganic elements occurring in the body that are essential to its normal functions
Fibre
Indigestible, essential for healthy functioning of digestive system
Vitamins
Role in chemical processes taking place inside cells
Water
Transporting substances around body and a s a medium for chemical reactions
3
Q
Why is it impossible to give guideline advice on energy intake that will apply to everyone
A
Because it depends on people level of activity and out level of activity isn’t always the same
4
Q
H woo do you know if your diet contains enough energy
A
Change in mass ir weight
5
Q
What is malnutrition caused by
A
An unbalanced diet
6
Q
An example of the most common form of malnutrition in the west with explanation
A
Obesity
Consuming too much energy
Excess energy deposited as fat in adipose tissue
7
Q
What bmi indicates underweight Healthy Overweight Obese
A
18.5 and below
18.5 to 25
25 o’t 30
30 and over
8
Q
What is nutrition
A
It’s nourishment
The nutrients and energy needed for health and growth
9
Q
What is a balanced diet
A
One that contains all the nutrients required for health in appropriate proportions
10
Q
What is obesity
A
When a person is 20% or more heavier then the recommended weight for their height or when their bmi is over 30
11
Q
Equation for bmi
A
Mass in kg
Divided by
Height in m squared
12
Q
What 3 health problems is obesity considered to be a factor of
What 3 stuff is it also linked to
A
Coronary heart disease
Cancer
Type 2 diabetes
Gallstones
OsteoarthritisHypertension
13
Q
How do you avoid becoming under or over weight
A
Balancing overall energy intake with energy use
14
Q
How is CHD caused
A
Due to atherosclerosis which involves the deposition of fatty substances in the walls of the coronary arteries.
This narrows the lumen which restricts cloud flow to the heart which can cause oxygen starvation
15
Q
Components of the duet that can decrease CHD?
A
Fibre and omega 3
16
Q
What are the 3 components that are thought to increase risk of CHD
A
Salt
Lipids
Cholesterol
17
Q
How can salt lead to CHD
A
Excess salt
Decreases water potential of blood
So blood pressure increases which can lead to hypertension
Hypertension can damage the inner lining of the arteries
This can lead to atherosclerosis
18
Q
How can lipids cause CHD
A
Saturated fats are more harmful than unsaturated fats
Poly and mono unsaturated fats found in olive oil are beneficial to health
19
Q
How can cholesterol increase risk of CHD
A
Found I eggs, meat, dairy products
made in the liver from saturated fats
Too much cholesterol in the blood is harmful
20
Q
What is cholesterol used ti make
A
Steroid sex hormones and bile
21
Q
How can cholesterol be soluble to be transported around body
A
Converted into a different firm as lipoprotein
22
Q
What are lipoproteins
A
A molecule with the combination of lipid, cholesterol and protein used to transport fats and cholesterol aroubd the body
23
Q
What are the types of lipoprotein
A
High density
Low density
24
Q
What are hdl made out of
A
Unsaturated fats, proteins and cholesterol
25
Process of hdls
Carry cholesterol from the body tissues back to the liver
The cholesterol is used int cell metabolism or is broken down
So hdls are associated with reducing blood cholesterol
26
Process of ldls
Carry cholesterol from liver to body tissues
Ldl blood concentration will rise if too much saturated fats are consumed
The causes the fat to be deposited in the inner lining of the artery walls
27
What are ldls made out of
Saturated fats, protein and cholesterol
28
Role of poly and mono and saturated fats in affecting Ldl receptors
Saturated fats decrease activity of Ldl receptors
Less is removed from blood as blood Ldl concentration rises
So a higher concentration of Ldl in blood happens which lead to them being deposited in the artery walls
Polyunsaturated
Increase activity of the ldls receptors and so decrease concentration of Ldl in blood
Monounsaturated
Seem to help remive ldls from the blood too
29
Do we eat lipoproteins
No
30
5 ways of decreasing levels of ldls in blood
Not consuming a lot of stay rated fats
Having low fat duet to reduce overall concentration of lipoprotein
Eating a lot of unsaturated fats increases proportions of hdls which decrease blood cholesterol levels
Eating polyunsaturated fats ti reduce concentration of ldls in blood
Sting monounsaturated fats to help reduce blood Ldl concentration
31
What do plants make when they absorb carbon dioxide and what form
Carbohydrate
| Starch
32
What are omnivores
Organisms that eat both plants and animals
33
How can we make food production more efficient in plants
Improve growth rate of crops
Increase size of yield from each plant
Reduces loss of plants due to disease and pests
Standardise plant size to make harvesting easier
Improve plant response to fertilisers
34
How can we make food production more efficient in animals
Improve growth rate
Increase productivity
Increase resistance to disease
35
What is artificial selection
Intentional breeding of certain traits
| It's purpose is to increase the benefits to humans
36
What are the 3 stages to selective breeding
Isolation
Artificial selection
Interbreeding
37
Who is applying the selection pressure during selective breeding
Humans
38
What is marker assisted selection
It's when a section of dna is used as a marker to recognise the desired characteristic
Once offspring have been produced from selected offspring their dna is checked for the marker
39
Advantages of using marker assisted selection
Allows selection at an early stage
40
Examples of selective breeding
| 2
Farmers breed cattle for high milk yield or meat production
Dairy cows can produce over 40 litres of milk a day
Chickens are bred for egg or meat production. Egg layers can produce over 300 a year whilst unselected one only produce 20 to 30 a year
41
Examples of marker assisted selection
Tomatoes have been bred with improved disease resistance. The allele responsible for the resistance (to yellow lead curl virus) was identified and bred into a domestic variety
Apley have been bred with improved disease resistance and improved flavour and texture
42
Hiw else can food production be improved other than selective breeding
Using fertilisers
Contain nitrate, potassium, phosphate and increase growth rate
Pesticides
Kill organisms that cause disease in crops which may affect for production
Antibiotics
Infected animals treated with antibiotics which reduces spread of disease among other animals especially when I'm close proximity. Diseases can decrease growth rate and impair reproduction
43
What is selective breeding
Where humans select the individual organisms that are allowed to breed according to chosen characteristics
44
What are fertilisers
Minerals needed for plant growth, which are added to soil to improve fertility
45
What are
Pesticides
Fungicides
Antibiotics
Chemical that kills pests
Chemical that kills fungi
Chemical that kills ir prevent reproduction of bacteria
46
4 ways microorganisms can spoil our food?
Visible growth
When fungi grow on food. When penicillium grows on bread
Exeter al digestions by releasing enzymes into food to absorb nutrients. Food becomes smells sweet as sugars are broken down from carbs
Production if toxins
Example botulin toxin on food
Or seen ce of micros can cause infection if on food
E.g. salmonella bacteria
47
W sense if preventing food spoilage
Killing micros ir preventing them from reproducing
48
10 ways to prevents food spoilage
Cooking
Heat denatured proteins
Pasteurised
Heating to 72 then cooling to 4 to kill enzymes quickly
Drying salting and coating in sugar
Due to difference in WP water leaves by osmosis cause sing them to dehydrate
Smoking
Smoke contains antibacterial chemicals
Pickling
Acid pH kills micros by denaturing their proteins
Irradiation
Disrupts their dna structure
Cooling and freezing
Growth, metabolism and reproduction of micros is slow
Canning
Airtight, not microbes cm can enter
Vacuum wrapping
Air excluded, no microbes can respire aerobically
Plastic or paper packaging
49
4 examples of food made with the help of micros
Cheese
Made from curdled milk. Acted upon by lactobacillus bacteria, favoured using fungi
Yoghurt
Same as milk uses lactobacillus bacteria
Alcohol
Product of anaerobic respiration if alcohol
Bread
Bubbles of gas collect in dough making it rise. This is cz of the anaerobic respiration of yeast which produces CO2 gas
50
What recently have microorganisms been used for in terms of food
Scp To manufacture proteins that is used directly as food eye quorn
51
Potential of scp production using such microorganisms
They can produce protons with a similar amino acid profile to animal and plant protein.
They can grow on almost any organic substrate including waste material
52
6 Advantages of using microorganisms in food
Protein production is faster than animals or plant protein
Production easily controlled depending on demand
No animal welfare issues
Source if protein for veg
No animal fat or cholesterol on protein
Scp production can be combined with removal of waste products
53
5 disadvantages if using micros in food
Ppl don't want to eat fungal protein or that grown on waste
Microbes need to be isolated from material on which they grow. Costs a lot
Protein should be purified to ensure its uncontaminated
Infections: conditions used ideal for pathogenic organisms
Doesn't have taste or texture of traditional protein sources
54
6 things that define you're in good health
```
Free from disease
Can carry our normal psychical and mental tasks
Well fed with a balanced diet
Happy
Suitable housing
Well integrated with society
```
55
What is health
A state of mental physical and social wellbeing
56
What is disease
Departure from good health caused by a malfunction of the mind or body
57
What's a parasite
Organism that lives in or on another loving things. Causes harm to host
58
What's a pathogen
An organism that causes disease
59
External and internal parasite what are they?
| Examples
Ext live on host
Head louse
Int live in host
Tapeworm
60
How can parasites lead to secondary infections
Cause damage that allows other organism to invade the host
61
4 organisms that cause infectious diseases
Bacteria
Fungi
Viruses
Protoctists
62
Talk about bacteria in terms of it causing disease
A prokaryotae
Reproduce and multiply rapidly
Cause disease by damage cells or release waste products that are toxic
63
Examples of bacteria and what disease theyre involved in
| 2
Vibrio cholerae
Cholera
Mycobacteria tuberculosis
Tb
64
Talk about fungible terms of causing disease
Fungus lives in skin.
Sends out reproductive hyphae which grow to the surface of the skin to release spores
Causes redness and irritation
65
2 example so diseases caused by fungi and the fungi involved
Athletes foot
Ringworm
Tinea
66
Talk about viruses in terms of causing disease
Invade cells and take over their genetic machinery and other organelles
Cause cell to manufacture more copies of the virus
Host cell bursts releasing many new viruses
67
Examples of diseas cause by virus
| 2
HIV
| influenza
68
Talk about Protoctista in term if causing disease
Cause harm by entering hist cells
| feed on the contents as they grow
69
Example of Protoctista and disease they cause
Malaria
Palsmodium feeds on content of red blood cells
Amoeboid dysentery
70
What dies transmission mean
The way in which a parasitic microbe travels from one host to another
71
4 ways for a pathogen to cause a disease
Travel from one host to another
Get into hosts tissues
Reproduce
Cause damage to hosts tissues
72
Pathogen will need to pass primary defences
| Then secondary defences or immune responses
Just saying
73
```
3 forms of transmission
Read book about 3
Malaria
HIV
Tuberculosis
```
Vector
Physical contact
Droplet infection
74
What is who
Part if ya the UN
Seeks highest possible level of health for all people
75
What does ill health cause
A lot of suffering and economic cost
76
10 factors contributing to poor health of people
```
Poverty
Lack of proper shelter
Lack of purified water
Poor nutrition
Poor hygiene
Lack of investment by gov
Poor health service
Inadequate education about causes and transmission if disease
Warfare
Inadequate transport that prevent people reaching medical assistance
```
77
What is it called when you study the spread of disease and the factors affecting that spread
Epidemiology
78
What can you do through epidemiology
| 11
```
Identify the causes of disease
Identify risk factors
Determine incidence of a disease
Determine the prevalence of a disease
Determine the mortality
Determine the morbidity
Study how quickly it's spreading
Identify whether endemic, epidemic or pandemic
Identify countries at risk
I'd neatly part of pop at risk
Check how well control programmes are working
```
79
What is incidence
The number of people who die of a disease per year
80
What is prevalence
The number of people with the disease at a given time
81
What is mortality and morbidity
The number of people who die from the disease per year
The number of people with the disease as a proportion of the population
82
What is endemic
Epidemic
Pandemic
Always present in the pop
Spreading rapidly to a lot of people I've a large area
A worldwide epidemic
83
How can they help to plan to use their resources more effectively when it comes to health organisations
6
Targeting education or grammes to inform people of the risks and how ti avoid disease
Targeting advertisements to raise awareness
Targeting screening programmes to identify indvs at risk
Providing specialise health care in certain areas
Providing vaccination programmes for the major diseases
Targeting research to find cures for disease.
84
What are the 3 sections for primary defences
The skin
Mucous membrane
Other primary defences
85
Talk about the skin as a primary defence
Outer layer of skin is called epidermis
Which consists of keratinocytes which are cells
These cells are produced by mitosis at the base of the epidermis they then migrate to the surface of the skin and dry out, the cytoplasm is replaced by the protein keratin.
86
Talk about mucous membranes
The epithelial layer contains mucus secreting cells called goblet cells
The mucus lines the passages and traps any pathogens that may be in the air
The apathetic also has ciliate cells. The villa are tiny hair like organelles that can move. They waft the layer of mucus along
Mucus is swallowed and passes down the digestive system in which most pathogens are killed cz of the acidity of the stomach. It denature the pathogens enzymes
Also found in got, genial areas, anus, ears and nose
87
3 other primary defences
Antibodies in the tear fluid
Wax which traps pathogens
Acidic conditions of vagina
88
Secondary defence?
Non specific phagocytes
89
Whatvare the 2 types of phagocytosis
Neutrophils
Macrophages
90
Talk about neutrophils
Most common
Manufactured in bone marrow
Squeeze out of the blood into tissue fluid
May be found in epithelial surfaces
Shirt lived but released in large numbers
91
Talk about macrophages
Manufactured in bone marrow
Travel in blood as MONOCYTES
Tend to settle in lymph nodes, where they develop into macrophages
Also play a vital role on see civic responses to invading pathogens
92
How do phagocytosis work
Engulf and destroy pathogenic cells
A pathogen is recognised as foreign by their antigens when it invades the body
Antigens are specific to the irgend, we have antigens but they're recognised as our own so we don't respond to them
Antibodies in the blood attach to foreign antigens
The receptors on the membrane of phagocytosis attach to the antibodies, this process may be assisted ty other proteins called opsonins
The phagocytosis will then envelop the pathogen by flying it's membrane inwards
The pathogen is then trapped inside a vacuole called a phagosome.
Lysosomal fuse with the phagosome and related enzymes called lysins into it which digest the bacterium
The end products are absorbed into the cytoplasm
The neutrophils are short liver so will die soon after digesting a few pathogens
They mag collect in an area of infection to create pus
93
Talk about the role of macrophages
Infected cells release chemicals such as histamine, which attracts neutrophils to the area
Histamine also makes capilares more leaky. So more fluid leaves the capillaries in the area of infection
This means more tissue fluid passes into the lymphatic system. This leads the pathogens towards the macrophages waiting in the lymph nodes.
Macrophages play and important role in initiating the immune response
The immune response is the activation of lymphocytes in the blood to help fight the disease
94
Whatvare antigens
Molecules that stimulate an immune response
95
What are antibodies
Protein molecules that can identify and neutralise antigens
96
What do antigens stimulate
The immune response by stimulating production of antibodies
97
What type of molecules are antigens
Proteins or glycoproteins
98
What produces antibodies
Lymphocytes
99
Whatvare the 4 structures of an antibody
4 polypeptide chains
A constant region
A variable region
Hinge region
100
Talk about the 4 polypeptide chains in antibody
They're held together by disulfide bridges
101
Talk about the constant region
Same in all antibodies
Enables antibody to attach to phagocytic cells so helps in the process of phagocytosis
102
Talk about variable region
Has a specific shape and differs from on antibody to another cz if it's amino acid sequence
So the antibody can only attach to the correct antigen
103
Talk about the hinge Region
Allow a certain degree of flexibility
So allows attachment to more than one antigen
104
Two ways in which antibodies work and explain
Neutralisation
Antibody course the pathogen binding sites preventing the pathogen from binding to a host cell and entering the cell
Agglutination
A large antibody can bind many pathogens together
The griup of pathogens is too large to enter a host cell
105
Why does it take a few days before the number of antibodies on the blood ruses to a level that cba combat the infections successfully
What is this stage called
Because the antibodies are still being produced
The primary immune response
106
What happens with the antibodies once infection is gone
Number in blood drop
107
What happens ti antibodies if an infection happens again by the same pathogen
Stage called
Immune system acts quicker production of antibodies starts sooner and quicker
So concentration of antibodies rises sooner and 4 waches a higher concentration
This is the secondary immune response
108
How is cell signalling achieved
Through cell surface molecules and the release of hormone like chemicals called cytokines
109
How do t and b lymphocytes detect signals
Have target receptors that are complementary in shape to antigens
110
Whatvare the 4 sections for the what sort of info is communicated between cells
Talk about them
Identification
Antigens on pathogens cell surface act as flags or markers that say I am foreign they're detected by our body cells
Sending distress signals
Internal cell organelles such as lysosomes of the cell that had been invaded by the pathogen will fight the pathogen off. Many pathogen cells will be killer and parts of them will end up attached to the host plasma membrane. These have 2 effects
They act as a distress signal and can be detected by cells from the immune system
Also act as markers to indicate that the host cell is infected, t killer cells recognise this
Antigen presentation
Macrophages act like phagocytosis to engulf and digest
They don't fully digest it they separate out the antigens and incorporate them into a cell surface molecule. This is exposed on the surface of the macrophage
So they become known as an antigen presenting cell
It's function is to find the lymphocytes that can neutralise that antigen
Instructions
Communication using cytokines includes the following
Macrophages release monokines that attract neutrophils (by chemotaxis)
Macrophages release Monokines that can stimulate b cells to differentiate and release antibodies
T cells b cell and macrophages release interleukins which can stimulate proliferation and differentiation of b and t cells
Many cells can release interferon which can inhibit virus replication and stimulate the activity of t killer cells
111
What are memory cells
Cells that circulate in the blood after an immune response
| They speed up the response to a subsequent attack by the same pathogen
112
What are lymphocytes
White blood cells that circulate around the body in the blood and lymph
B cells originate in the bone marrow
T cells originate in the bone marrow but mature in the thymus gland
113
How do lymphocytes divide
Mitosis
114
Whatvare the 3 types of cells t and by lymphocytes develop into
T helper cells. Release cytokines that stimulate the b cells to develop and stimulate phagocytosis by phagocytes
T killer cells
Attack and kill infected body cells
T memory cells
Plasma cells which flow around in the blood manufacturing and releasing the antibodies
B memory cells that remain in the body for many years and act as immunological memory
115
Why does the immune response take time
The correct lymphocytes must be selected
Cells must divide to increase in number
Must differentiate into plasma cells
Plasma cells must manufacture the antibodies
116
What is vaccination
A deliberate exposure to antigenic material, which activates the immune system to make an immune response and provide immunity
117
What forms of antigenic material are there?
Live microorganisms. Must have very similar antigens to those that cause the real disease
Harmless pathogenic organism
Dead pathogen
Preparation. Of the antigens from a pathogen
Harmless toxin
118
What are the 2 ways of using vaccination
Herd
| Ring vaccination
119
What is herd vaccination
Using a vaccine to provide immunity to all or almost all of the population at risk. Once enough are immune the dishes can no longer spread
120
Talk about ring vaccination
Used when new disease found
Vaccinate all the people in the immediate vicinity of the new cases
121
What is active immunity
Immunity that I'd achieved by activation of the immune system
Plasma cells manufacture antibodies
Immunity can last for many years even a lifetime
122
What is passive immunity
Provided by antibodies that hasn't been manufactures by plasma cells and stimulating the recipient's immune system
E.g. mother across the placenta or via breast milk
Short lived
123
What is natural immunity
Gained in the normal course of living processes
May be gained cz of an infection that stimulates the immune response
124
What is artificial immunity
Gained by deliberate exposure to antigenic material antibodies or antigens
