module 3 Flashcards
(124 cards)
1
Q
What 3 levels may biodiversity be considered at?
Explain each
A
Habitat
The range if habitats in which different species live
Species
The differences between species
Genetic
Genetic variation between individuals belonging to the same species
2
Q
What is a species
A
A group of indv organisms very similar in anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, appearance and genetic. They are able to interbreed freely to produced fertile offspring
3
Q
What is a a habitat
A
The place where an organism lives
4
Q
Examples of habitat
A
Oak woodland
Freshwater ponds
Rocky shores
5
Q
What is biodiversity
A
It’s the variety if life -the range of different organisms to be found
6
Q
What 2 things does biodiversity take into acvount
A
The number of indvs and in how many places they can be found
7
Q
Why can’t we be sure how accurate our estimates for known species are
4 points
A
We aren’t sure we found all the species on earth
New species are being found all the time
Evolution and speciation are continuing
Many species are endangered and some are becoming extinct
8
Q
What are the 5 kingdoms
A
Prokaryotic Protoctists Fungi Plants Animals
9
Q
Atleast 3 point facts for each Kingdom
A
Prokaryotes No nucleus Loop of Naked dna No membrane bound organelles Smaller ribosomes Free living or parasitic Respiration in cell membrane not mitochondria
Protoctists Mainly single celled Eukaryotic Mainly free living Autotrophs or heterotrophs They don't qualify to become any of the other 4 kingdoms
Fungi Eukaryotic Chitin cell walls Have mycelium which is made of hyphae Multinucleate Mostly free living and saprotrophic (cause decay of organic matter)
Plants Multicellular Eukaryotic Autotrophs Cellulose cell wall
Animals Eukaryotic Multicellular Heterotrophs Can move around mostly
10
Q
Why do we classify loving things
4
A
Because it convenient for us
Study of living things becomes more manageable
Easier to identify organisms
To help see the rel between species
11
Q
Why is it important to understand animals
A
Cz animals are close to humans genetically esp apes. So to understand them could help in understanding ourselves and our evolution in many ways
12
Q
What are the ranked categories called
A
Taxonomic groups
13
Q
Why has the original classification system by Linnaeus changed?
A
Because we find more organisms
14
Q
What are the 8 taxa
A
Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
15
Q
What happens as you rise through the ranks of classification/taxa
A
The indvs grouped together show more and more diversity
Number of similarities and level of relatedness get less and less
16
Q
What are the 3 domains
A
Archaea
Bacteria
Eukaryotae
17
Q
Whys it easy to classify species at the top of the classification system but it gets harder towards the species taxa
A
Because the organisms begin to share more biochemical, physiological, genetic, appearances so it easy to mistake one for another or think both belong to the same species or genus etc
18
Q
Give an example of when classification can be easy which taxa
A
Kingdom and phyla because differences are great
E.g. chordata (vertebrates) and anthropoda (invertebrates)
19
Q
Give an example of when classification can be more difficult taxa
A
Difference between different classes
Insects and arachnids are harder to classify. A more detailed description of the species is needed
20
Q
Why does using a common name for species not work well
4 points
A
Because the same organism may have a different common name
Different common names are used in different countries
Translation of languages and dialects may give a different common name for the same species
The same common name may be used for different species
21
Q
What language is used for species nane
A
Latin
22
Q
How does using the same language or a universal language help in terms of naming species
A
It prevents confusion
23
Q
What does binomial mean
A
2 names
24
Q
What are the 2 names used in naming species
A
Genus name and species name
25
Which has a capital letter and which is in lower case throughout of from the genus and species
Genus capital
| Species lower case throughout
26
Hiw must the binomial Latin name be written
In print
Italic
Handwritten
Underlined
27
How do we check that a development won't harm the environment
Environmental assessment exercise
28
What do we need to do before we begin a large development
Check if the environment in question may be harmed
29
Why do we need to identify living things esp in an area
To check what species are present in an area
and how rare they are
Which determines whether the Dev should carry on or halt for the sake of the species in that environment
30
What is a dichotomous key
Uses questions with 2 alternative answers to help you identify a specimen
31
What is the binomial system
Uses 2 names to identify each species
| The genus name and the species name
32
Hi do you kniw a dichotomous key is good
It'll have 1 question less than the number of species it can identify
33
What were earlier classification to systems based on and what we're their problems
Appearance and anatomy
| Often led to misclassification cz of lack of adequate descriptions available for classification
34
What allowed these classification systems to improve
Advancement in technology eg electron microscopes and more research and info done and is available
35
What problem did better microscopes identify in terms of earlier classification systems
What was the other problem with earlier classification systems
Some single celled organisms shared both animal like and plant like features and not just one of each
Fungi were difficult to classify
Like plants they don't move
But they don't synthesise
Like animals they digest organic matter and absorb the nutrients
36
What is physiology about and what other other branch of scientific study grew out of it
Study of how loving things work
| Biochemistry
37
What 2 biochemical methods can be used in classification
Cytochrome c
| Dna
38
Describe and explain cytochrome c in terms of classification
| 4
A biochemical method for classification
Cytochrome c is a protein used in respiration
The amino acids of cytochrome c from one species can be identified an compared to another species
The following conclusion can be drawn
If the sequences are very similar or the same we'd conclude the specie are closely related
If the sequence if different we'd conclude the 2 species are not so closely related
The more difficult found between the species the less closely related they are
39
Describe and explain dna in terms of biochemical classification
4
All living organisms use dna
Dna provides the genetic code which is the same for all organisms
Comparing dna sequence can be used as a way to classify species
The more similar the species the more closely related they are to each other
40
How else other than classification can we use dna
To clarify ir core t rels were unsure about
41
What is the basis of the 3 domain classification
The kingdom prokaryotae has 2 very different domain in it (bacteria and archaea)
The archaea have many similarities to the Eukaryotae
(Similar membrane structure, flagellum structure, RNA polymerase and proteins on their dna, dna replication and RNA production mechanisms are similar)
Bacteria are very different to the archaea and Eukaryotae
(Different membrane structure, different flagella structure, RNA polymerase, different mechanism for dna replication and RNA production)
These differences suggest that a split is needed
The archaea are more closely related to the Eukaryotes than are the bacteria
42
What are the 2 forms of variation WITH IN a species
Continuous and discontinuous
43
What is continuous variation
Where there's a full range of intermediate phenotypes between 2 extremes
44
What is discontinuous variation
Where there are discrete groups of phenotypes with no intermediate values
45
What is variation
Is the pretense if variety ir differences in individuals
46
What is genetic variation
Caused by differences between the genes and the combination of genes or alleles
47
Give examples 3 of continuous variation
Height in human
Length if leaves
Length if stalk
Foot length
48
Examples of discontinuous variation
Sex
Human blood group
Flagella or not
Attached ear lobe or not
49
What are the 2 causes of variation
Environment
| Genetics
50
How do genetics cause variation
There is never a complete genetic match
There are approx 25k genes in human cells many of which have more than one allele
So likelihood of any 2 indvs sharing exact combination of alleles is remote
So the combination of characteristics each of us possesses is unique which causes variation
51
How can the environment cause variation
Environmental factors can affect the phenotype and cause variation
Examples
Intense sunlight burns skin and causes tanning
eating too much causes increase in weitht
Starvation causes a loss of weight and affects health
52
Not all our genes are active
E.g.
When you reach puberty many changes occur in your body because different genes are becoming active. Changes in the environment affect which genes are active. This is what brings about the changes you see
Just random info
53
What is an adaptation
It's a feature/variation that enhances survival and long term reproductive success
54
How does the process if evolution work
By selecting particular adaptations to survive from on generation to the next
55
What happens if an indv has an advantageous characteristic
| 4
They're more likely to survive and reproduce in the environment in question than the indv that doesn't have the advantageous characteristic
Over many generation more will have that advantageous characteristic cz those who didn't would die out
therefore the characteristic is an adaptation.
The adaptation has been selected
56
What can a well adapted organism be able to do
```
Find enough food
Photosynthesis well
Protect itself from predators
Protect itself from disease
Find enough water
Respond to changes in its environment
Survive extreme changes in its environment
Have enough energy left over to successfully reproduce
```
57
What are the 3 types if adaptations
| Explain them
Behavioural
The behaviour of an organism that helps it to survive the conditions it lives in
Physiological/biochemical
The physiology or biochemistry of an organism that ensure the correct functioning of the cell processes
Anatomical
Any structure that enhances the survival of the organism is an adaptation
58
What are xerophytic plants
Plants that are adapted to live in very dry conditions
59
Behavioural adaptations of xerophytic plants
| 3
Some close their stomata to reduce water evaporation from the plant to the surrounding environment
Some only open their stomata at night because there's less light therefore less water evaporation which conserves water and enhances survival
Some fold or roll their leaves when water is in short supply. This is done by trapping moist air in the folded or rolled leaves, reducing the water vapour potential gradient which decreases evaporation of water and conserves water for survival
60
Physiological/behavioural adaptations of xerophytic plants
The mechanisms by which an xerophytic plant can open and close it's stomata, fold it leaves or store water.
61
Anatomical adaptations of xerophytic plants
Structures that enable a plant to survive in dry conditions
Roots are shallow but spread over a wide area. This allows it to absorb as much water as possible when it's available
Roots may be very long and narrow which allows it to absorb water from deep inside the soil
Leaves smaller in size, reduces surface area for evaporation of water
Waxy cuticle on leaves reduces evaporation of water
Leaves may be folded ir rolled or hairy. This traps a layer of moist air next ti the stomata reducing the water vapour potential gradient which decreases evaporation of water by transpiration.
62
What was Darwin proposed mechanism
Natural selection
63
Where did darwin go to for his trip
Galapagos islands
64
What 4 observations did darwin make
No 2 indvs are the same
Offspring are very similar to their parents
Organism can reproduce to make a large number of offspring
Populations I'm nature tend to remain fairly constant in size
65
What were the 3 conclusion of Darwin
There is a struggle to survive
Organisms with the better adaptations will survive and pass on their characteristics
Due to variations a number of changes may give rise to a new species or speciation
66
What is natural selection
Is the selection by the environment of particular indvs that show certain characteristics
OR the process in which some environmental factors determine which indvs will survive
These indvs will survive to reproduce and pas on their advantageous characteristics
67
What do indvs undergo that when selected
Selection pressures
68
4 examples of environmental factors that act as selective pressures
Availability of food
Predators
Disease
Physical and chemical factors (temp, desert/snow etc)
69
What is speciation
The formation of a new species
70
How long does speciation take
Usually over many generations
But bacteria and single celled organisms can go through speciation because they can pass through many generations within a few hours
71
How does speciation occur
| 4
There must be a reproductive barrier
When this happens advantageous characteristics or variations can't be passed on to other groups of the same species
This means that some members of the same species become different to others
Difference could be so great that they can no longer interbreed which causes speciation
72
2 examples of reproductive barriers
Geographical seperation
Due to a large body of water so live in 2 different lands
This is allopatric speciation
Biochemical/behavioural/physical changes that prevent fertilisation
Courtship dance no longer recognised
Sexual organs of 2 groups if indvs are no longer compatible and can't mate
This is sympatric speciation
73
Again how dies evolution occur but in 5 steps
Variation occurs
The environment selects indvs with advantageous variation or characteristics
Indvs with advantage survive and reproduce
So they pass on their advantageous characteristics
The next generation will be better adapted to their environment
74
Which cause of variation os important for evolution
Genetic not environmental
75
Effect of speciation on diversity
Increases it
76
Can evolution occur within a species without speciation occurring
Is diversity still increase this way
Examples if yes or no
Yes
Some indvs may have an advantageous characteristic but can still interbreed. This increases diversity -species diversity
Wild salmon same species but cz some live in different areas they're not all adapted to live in all areas of indvs in their species
77
Evidence of evolution occuring today using to organisms
The insects
Microorganisms
78
Talk about evidence of insect evolution
Insecticide used by humans to kill insects
Insecticide therefore act as selection pressures on insects
If insect is susceptible it'll due. If it has some sort of resistance it'll survive.
The insects that survive will pass on the resistance characteristic to offspring
Resistance spreads quickly throughout the populations as generations pass on
79
Give 2 ways in which insect shave developed resistance against insecticide
Have an enzyme that can break down the insecticide
The target receptor protein on the cell membrane may be modified
80
Give an example of insect that have gone through evolution
Some mosquitos developed resistance to DDT by metabolising them
81
2 problems with insects evolving
Harder for us to control the spread of malaria and outbreaks of other insect pests
Pesticides may move up the food chain due to the insects serving them which may be harmful to humans
82
Talk about microorganisms evolution
Antibiotics act as selective pressures on bacteria
Many bacteria die because of them but some develop resistance agaibst the antibiotic
Those that survive reproduce and pass on their resistance characteristic to future generations
83
Problems with microorganisms evolving
People tend to stop taking antibiotics when they feel better. But a lot if times this occurs when the bacteria that is left tend to be the most resistant and all the susceptible ones die.
This causes the resistant ones to reproduce at a large scale due to lack of antibiotics which could be very harmful for the human affected. Therefore it's important for us to compete our antibiotic cycle
Also due to new strains of resistant bacteria we need to develop new antibiotics which costs us a lot and is time consuming
84
Individuals don't evolve
Individuals are selected and the population evolves
Just some info
85
What is extinction
When a species ceases to exist
86
How do human activities affect nature
We're using more of the earth's resources
Our activities harm other species
Loss of biodiversity
Extinction may occur
87
How does extinction affect biodiversity
Reduces it
88
What happens if we remove natural vegetation for food
Removes the habitat of many organisms
| Chances of extinction become greater for some species
89
What is the problem with using a monoculture
Lacks biodiversity
90
Human activities that reduce biodiversity and lead to extinction
Hunting for food
Killing fir protection
Killing to remive competitors for our food
Pollution
Hi a bat at destruction (deforestation)
Introduction of new predators and competitors.
91
4 reasons why we need to conserve species
Economic
Ecological
Ethical
Aesthetic
92
Economic and ecological reasons why we should conserve
Evolution has provided answers to many technological problems we face. E.g. best aerodynamic shape in water. Best shape of a wing in air etc
These answers are provided by millions of years of evolution
Extinction of certain species means we could be losing many solutions to new problems.
93
How do natural ecosystems perform process that are of value to humans
```
Regulation of the atmosphere and climate
Purification and retention of fresh water
Formation and fertilisation of soil
Recycling if nutrients
Detoxification and recycling of wastes
Crop pollination
Growth of timer, food and fuel.
```
94
Ethical and aesthetic reasons to conserve species
All urbanism have the right to live. Loss of habitat prevents many organisms from living where they should.
We experience a feeling of joy and wellbeing when observing the infinite variations of nature.
Studies have shown that patients recover more rapidly from stress and injury when they are exposed to pleasing natural environmental conditions
95
What would happen if there wasn't any genetic diversity
Speciation will be highly unlikely. Organism won't be able to adapt to changes in the environment
96
What are threats to species with a low genetic diversity
| 4
Changes in the climate
Increase in pollution levels
Emergence of new diseases
Arrival of new pests
97
Effects of reducing gene pool
Decreases genetic diversity and then ability for a species to evolve
98
What is gene pool
The sum total and variety of all genes in a population or species at a given time.
99
What can ecosystems do if they can't adapt
Migrate
100
Obstruction to migration of ecosystems
| 4
Major human developments
Agricultural land
Large bodies of water
Humans
101
How could climate change affect agriculture
| 6
Higher carbon dioxide levels altering photosynthesis
Higher temperatures increasing growth rates
Longer growing seasons
Greater evaporation of water therfore greater precipitation
Loss of land due to rise in sea level and increased salinity of the soil
A change in the distribution of precipitation
102
Why are domesticated animals and plants particularly at risk from climate change
Because we selectively bred them in specific conditions. They have little variation. They'll be unable to adapt and evolve to changing environment. When change incurs, farmers will notice their crops don't have the same amount of yield as before. They'll have to change the crops they grow and the varieties of animals they keep.
103
How does climate change affect in terms if diseases
Crops being grown in different areas will encounter new diseases and pests. These crops won't have resistance to them cz they've never encountered them.
Higher temp means more pests and diseases may be able to overwinter successfully and cause greater infestations earlier in the year. This will mean lower yields and less food for humans
New diseases may also be able to migrate which increases spread to new areas and possibly more deaths.
104
What happens if we decline biodiversity
Genetic diversity declines. We could lose the natural solution to some of our problems
We may not be able to breed new crop varieties that can cope with the new conditions created by climate change
Genetic engineering to create transgenic species wouldn't be able to be used
Important cz of the medical potentials from certain species.
105
What is conservation in situ
Conserving a species in its normal environment
106
4 ways of conserving in situ
Legislation
Conservation parks
Conservation reserves in the uk
Repopulation
107
Tall about legislation in terms of conservation in situ
Problems with legislation
Can pass legislation to ban hunting, clearing land etc
Can be difficult to persuade certain countries legislation is necessary
Can be difficult to enforce such of girl action, especially if the gov is not in favour of it
108
Examples of conservation parks on terms of in situ
National parks
Nature reserves
Private land
Farm sites
109
What are the principles of choosing a reserve or park?
| 3
Comprehensiveness
How many species are represented in the area and what are the prevailing environmental conditions
Adequacy
Is the area large enough
Representativeness
Is there a full range of diversity within each species and set of environmental conditions
110
Advantages of having a reserve in terms of in situ conservation
7
Plants and animals are conserved in their natural environment
Permanently protects biodiversity and ecosystems
Permanently protects elements of natural a nd cultural heritage
Ensures that ecological integrity is maintained
Provides opportunities for ecologically sustainable land uses.
Facilitates scientific research
May be possible to restore the ecological integrity of the area
111
Role reasons why conflicts may arise with indigenous when making reserves
Protected animals coming out of the reserve to destroy crops
People hunt protected animals for food
Illegal harvesting of timber and other plant products
Tourists feeding protected animals or leaving litter.
112
4 type of conservation reserves in uk
National parks
National nature reserves
Sites of special scientific interest
Local nature reserves
113
Talk about repopulation
When biodiversity has been lost, it's possible to rebuild it
114
What is conservation ex situ
Conserving and endangered species by activities that take place outside it's normal environment
115
Tall about role of zoos or wildlife parks in terms of conservation ex situ
Breed endangered species. Increase number of indvs in an endangered species
Enable Repopulation by introducing captive bred animals to the wild.
Protects them from predators and their health can be maintained by veterinary science
116
Why cm can captive breeding be difficult
| 6
The animals aren't in their natural environment so it's likely they may not be able to breed successfully
Limited space, which limits number of indvs which reduces genetic diversity
Low genetic diversity is low variation
So animals less able to adapt to changing environment Which affects it's ability to breed successfully
Have to survive reintroduction to the wild which may be difficult for them especially if they were born under captivity
Difficult with acceptance by existing wilding wild members of their species
117
What does freezing sperms and eggs help in terms of conservation ex situ
Preserves large amounts of genetic material
118
4 points on freezing sperms and eggs
Sperms freezing, artificial insemination, in vitro fertilisation and embryo transfer techniques are used with domestic animals. Can also be used with wild animals
Further research into each endangered species is needed to ensure the techniques are used effectively
Research on domestic species that is very similar to the target species can help to speed up progress
This also save the rare endangered individuals from experimental work until the last steps.
119
Why conservation of plants is easier or easy
| 8
Most plants naturally have a dormant stage. The seed
Seeds can be controlled from the wild without causing too much disturbance to the ecosystem cz of their large numbers
Seeds can be stored and germinated in protected surroundings
Seeds can be stored in large numbers without taking up too much space
Plants can be bred asexually
Botanical can increase the number of individuals rapidly
This provides a large amount of individuals for research
The captive bred in divs can be replanted in the wild
120
What are the disadvantags of seed conservation
| 6
Collections of wild seeds will still cause disturbance
Collected sample may not hold a representative selection of genetic diversity
Seeds collected from the same species from another area will be genetically different and may not succeed in a different area
Seeds stored for any length of time may not be viable
Plants bred asexually will be genetically identical. Reducing genetic diversity
Research conclusion from a small sample may not be valid for the whole species
121
What is the largest ex situ conservation
The Kew millennium seed bank in Sussex
122
What is the Sussex things goal
Collect a sample of seeds from every known species of plant
123
Talk about seed banks
Seeds can remain fir decades and even hundreds of years
Can be used for food, building materials, disease resistant crops, Repopulation etc
124
How do scientists ensure seeds are still viable
| 5
Must remive samples and germinate them periodically
They plant the seeds in petri dishes of nutrient agar and keep them in controlled conditions
Scientists measure the germination rate and the succession of germination
This enables scientists to monitor the condition of the stored seeds
Research continues further and with luck this will lead to discovery of the most effective methods of storage
