Module 4

Question 1

According to Hobbes, all animals, including humans, are nothing more than ______.

Answer 1

Flesh-and-blood machines

Question 2

Hobbes had met the Italian astronomer _____, frequently regarded as the “father of modern science”, and had been closely associated with ______, whose thinking had helped to revolutionize scientific practice.

Answer 2

Galileo, Francis Bacon

Question 3

In _____, his major political
work, Hobbes proclaims: “The
universe—that is, the whole mass of things that are—is corporeal, that is to say, body.”

Answer 3

Leviathan

Question 4

He goes on to say that each of these bodies has “____, ____, and _____”, and “that which is not body is no part of the universe.”

Answer 4

Length, Breadth, and Depth

Question 5

Some bodies or objects, Hobbes declares, are imperceptible, even though they occupy physical space and have physical dimensions. These, he calls “____.”

Answer 5

Spirits

Question 6

Orphaned in infancy, _____ was fortunately taken in by a wealthy uncle, who offered him a good education. His first book, ____, was published in Paris in 1642. But it was his ideas on morality, politics, and the functions of society and the state, set out in ____.

Answer 6

Thomas Hobbes, De Cive, Leviathan

Question 7

Labelled _____, these move around the body, carrying with them and passing on information, in much the same way as we now think of
the nervous system doing.

Answer 7

Animal Spirits

Question 8

Sometimes, Hobbes seems to
apply his concept of physical spirits to God and other entities found in religion, such as angels. However, he does state that God himself, but not other physical spirits, should be described as “_____.”

Answer 8

Incorporeal

Question 9

Because Hobbes considers that human beings are purely _____, and are therefore no more than _____, he is then
faced with the problem of how to account for our mental nature.

Answer 9

Physical, Biological Machines

Question 10

Hobbes has nothing to say about what the modern-day Australian philosopher _____ calls the hard problem of consciousness”.

Answer 10

David Chalmes

Question 11

Hobbes also had to contend with the very different thinking about mind and body that ____ set out in his _____ of 1641.

Answer 11

Descartes, Meditations

Question 12

14 years later, Hobbes addressed the problem again in a passage in his book ____ which presents and criticizes what seems to be a muddled form of part of Descartes’ argument. He said that incorporeal substance is an example of insignificant or empty language due to the notion of “a body without a body”.

Answer 12

De Corpore

Question 13

The concepts of sovereignty and the divine right of kings emerge,
influenced by ______ by _____.

Answer 13

Six Books of The Republic, Jean Bodin

Question 14

The Glorious Revolution in England leads to the 1689 ______, which limits the
powers of the monarch in law.

Answer 14

Bill of Rights

Question 15

_____ opposes absolutist rule, arguing that government should represent the people and protect their rights to life, health, liberty, and possessions.

Answer 15

John Locke

Question 16

The ______ that followed the Middle Ages in Europe introduced new views on human nature that were not based on religious doctrine, but were instead
founded on rational thought.

Answer 16

Enlightenment Period

Question 17

To settle such abstract, fundamental differences, scholars began to state their views on the so-called “______”—the
theoretical condition of mankind
before the introduction of social
structures and norms.

Answer 17

State of Nature

Question 18

Many thinkers believed that by analyzing the human “_____” and behaviors of this state of nature, one could design a system of government that met the needs of its citizens and would promote
good behaviors and counteract bad
ones

Answer 18

Instincts

Question 19

Hobbes’s view was that human beings needed to be ruled by government, as
the state of nature was a terrible,
“______” world.

Answer 19

Dog-eat-dog

Question 20

In his most famous work, Leviathan, Hobbes portrays humans as ______ who
seek to maximize power and act according to self-interest, because
acting otherwise would threaten
their self-preservation.

Answer 20

Rational Agents

Question 21

To avert a descent into the state of nature, men must enter into
a _______, submitting to the authority and protection of a sovereign.

Answer 21

Social Contract

Question 22

Enlightenment thinkers referred to
the concept of a ______ between the ruled and the ruler to answer questions of the political legitimacy of various modes of governance.

Answer 22

Social Contract

Question 23

Hobbes argued that humans had two principal choices in life — they could either live _____ government (the state of nature) or _____ government.

Answer 23

Without, With

Question 24

However, because each individual has to protect their own interests in the state of nature, a “________” arises.

Answer 24

Collective Action Problem

Question 25

_____ led the anti-Royalist forces that deposed King Charles I in 1649. Hobbes believed the social contract was still intact, since rule had passed unbroken to Parliament

Answer 25

Oliver Cromwell

Question 26

Although he did not take a decisive stance on which mode of government was best, he clearly preferred Charles I’s _____ as a good, stable form of government. However, he also regarded ________ as a suitable form of government, as long as the legislative assembly contained an __ number of members to prevent a situation of political stalemate.

Answer 26

Monarchy, Parliamentary Sovereignty, Odd

Question 27

Two other influential philosophers—____ and Scottish philosopher _____—also criticized Hobbes.

Answer 27

John Locke, David Hume

Question 28

In ______ (1971), Rawls argues that people would choose a condition where everyone had some basic rights and economic safeguards if forced to choose under a “______,” not knowing whether they would have a privileged position in this imagined society.

Answer 28

A Theory of Justice, Veil of Ignorance

Question 29

_____ is traditionally included in the group of philosophers known as the _____, together with two later philosophers, George Berkeley and David Hume. The ______ are generally thought to hold the view that all human knowledge must come directly or indirectly from the experience of the world that we acquire through the use of our senses alone.

Answer 29

John Locke, British Empiricists, Empiricists

Question 30

The ____ all accept that in practice our knowledge of the world ultimately stems from our experience, and most notably from scientific enquiry.

Answer 30

Rationalists

Question 31

This is the theory that everything in the world is made up of submicroscopic particles, or _____, which we can have no direct knowledge of, but which, by their very existence, make sense of phenomena that would otherwise be difficult or impossible to explain.

Answer 31

Corpuscular Theory, Corpuscles

Question 32

Locke does argue at some length, in his _____, against the theory proposed by the rationalists to explain how knowledge could be accessed without experience. This is the theory of ______.

Answer 32

Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Innate Ideas

Question 33

Locke was against the idea that human beings possess any kind of innate knowledge. He takes the view that the mind at birth is a _____—a blank tablet or a new sheet of paper upon which experience writes, in the same way that light can create images on photographic film

Answer 33

Tabula Rasa

Question 34

In 1704, ______ wrote a rebuttal of Locke’s empiricist arguments in his _____. He declares that innate ideas are the one clear way that we can gain knowledge that is not based upon sensory experience, and that Locke is wrong to deny their possibility

Answer 34

Gottfried Leibniz, New Essays on the Human Understanding

Question 35

____ was born in 1632, the son of an English country lawyer. Though Locke’s empiricist ideas are important, it was his political writing that made him famous. He proposed a _______ of the legitimacy of government and the idea of natural rights to _____.

Answer 35

John Locke, Social Contract Theory, Private Property

Question 36

A ____ followed that a government that did not respect and protect people’s natural rights—or unnecessarily constrained their liberty—was not legitimate.

Answer 36

Illegitimate Government

Question 37

Unlike his contemporary Thomas Hobbes, who believed that an absolute sovereign was required to save people from a brutal “state of nature,” Locke maintained that the powers and functions of government had to be ____.

Answer 37

Limited

Question 38

Much of Locke’s writing on political philosophy centered on rights and laws. He defined political power as “_____,” He contended that one of the primary reasons why people would voluntarily leave the lawless state of nature was that no ______ existed in such a situation.

Answer 38

A Right of Making Laws with Penalties of Death, Independent Judges

Question 39

According to Locke, The end of law should be to _____ and _____ freedom.

Answer 39

Preserve and Enlarge

Question 40

In political society, Locke believes that “_____.” _____, therefore, both constrain and enable freedom.

Answer 40

"Where there are no law there is no freedom", Laws

Question 41

According to Locke, the state of nature is a situation in which people coexist, often in relative harmony, but there is no ____ or ____ to settle disputes in a ____ way.

Answer 41

Legitimate Political Power, Judge, Neutral

Question 42

Where Hobbes would see human beings acting as “_____,” mainly concerned with self-preservation, Locke finds that people can act according to ____ and with tolerance in the state of nature.

Answer 42

Power Maximizers, Reason

Question 43

______, ratified by King William III in 1689, established limits on the king’s power, conforming with Locke’s contention that a monarch only rules by the consent of the people.

Answer 43

The English Bill of Rights

Question 44

Locke’s distinction between legitimate and illegitimate governments also carries with it the idea that opposition to illegitimate rule is acceptable. Locke describes a range of scenarios in which people would have a _____ in order to take back the power they had given the government

Answer 44

Right to Revolt

Question 45

The political philosophy of John Locke has, since his time, become known as “_____”—the belief in the principles of liberty and equality

Answer 45

Liberalism

Question 46

____ was very much a product of the mid- to late 18th-century period known as the Enlightenment, and an embodiment of the continental European philosophy of the time. As a young man he tried to make his name as both a musician and composer, but in 1740 he met _____ and _____, the philosopher compilers of the new ______, and became interested in philosophy

Answer 46

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot and Jean d'Alembert, Encyclopedie

Question 47

Rousseau compared an idea of humanity in a hypothetical “natural state” with how people actually live in a civil society. But he took such a radically different view of this natural state and the way it is affected by society, that it could be considered a form of “_______” thinking. It held within it the seeds of the next great movement, ______.

Answer 47

Counter-Enlightenment, Romanticism

Question 48

______ had envisaged life in the natural state as “solitary, poor,nasty, brutish, and short.” In his view humanity is instinctively selfinterested and self-serving, and that civilization is necessary to place restrictions on these instincts. ______, however, looks more kindly on human nature, and sees civil society as a much less benevolent force.

Answer 48

Hobbes, Rousseau

Question 49

Answering the question: “Has the restoration of the sciences and the arts contributed to refining moral practices?” The expected answer from thinkers of the time, and especially from a musician such as Rousseau, was an enthusiastic affirmative, but in fact Rousseau argued the opposite case. His______, which won him first prize, controversially puts forward the idea that the arts and sciences corrupt and erode morals.

Answer 49

Discourse on the Sciences and Arts

Question 50

______ in art and literature that dominated the late 18th and early 19th centuries reflected Rousseau’s vision of the state of nature as one of beauty, innocence, and virtue.

Answer 50

The Romantic Movement

Question 51

Having broken with established thinking in his prize-winning and publicly acclaimed essay, Rousseau took the idea a stage further in a second essay, _______ . The subject matter chimed with the mood of the time, echoing the calls for social reform from writers such as Voltaire, but once again Rousseau contradicted conventional thinking with his analysis.

Answer 51

The Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality among Men

Question 52

The selfish, savage, and unjust state of nature depicted by Hobbes is, for Rousseau, a description not of “natural man”, but of “_____”.

Answer 52

Civilized Man

Question 53

The state of nature that Rousseau describes is a ______, where people in their natural state are fundamentally good.

Answer 53

Pastoral Idyll

Question 54

The English wrongly interpreted Rousseau’s idea of natural man as a “_____”, but this was due to a mistranslation of the French sauvage, which means simply “natural”, not brutish.

Answer 54

Noble Savage

Question 55

Although humanity is naturally virtuous, it is corrupted by society; and although man is born free, the laws imposed by society condemn him to a life “____.”

Answer 55

In Chains

Question 56

Rousseau’s second ____ ruffled even more feathers than his first, but it gained him a reputation and quite a following.

Answer 56

Discourse

Question 57

Not content with merely stating the problem, Rousseau went on to offer a solution, in what is seen as perhaps his most influential work, _______. Rousseau opens his book with the challenging declaration “Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains”, which was considered such a call for radical change that it was adopted as a slogan during the French Revolution 27 years later.

Answer 57

The Social Contract

Question 58

Modelled on _____,, Rousseau imagines the citizen body operating as a unit, prescribing laws according to the ___ or ____.

Answer 58

Classical Republican Ideas of Democracy, Volonté Générale, or General Will

Question 59

In another book written in the same year, entitled ____, or _____, Rousseau expanded on his theme, explaining that _____ was responsible for corrupting the state of nature and perpetuating the evils of modern society.

Answer 59

Emile, On Education, Education

Question 60

________, which began 11 years after Rousseau’s death, was inspired by his claim that it was unjust for the rich few to rule over the effectively voiceless, powerless poor

Answer 60

The French Revolution

Question 61

Marx’s _____ ends with a nod to Rousseau, encouraging the proletarians (workers) have “nothing to lose but their chains”

Answer 61

The Communist Manifesto

Question 62

To renounce____ is to renounce being a man.

Answer 62

Liberty

Question 63

Rousseau’s autobiographical _____, published after his death, reveal that it was during his time in the Italian island-port of Venice— while working as an underpaid ambassadorial secretary—that he decided “everything depends entirely on politics.”

Answer 63

Confessions

Question 64

In his _____ of 1754, Rousseau broke with previous political philosophy. The ancient Greeks and others writing on society—including Ibn Khaldun in the 14th century—viewed political processes as subject to their own laws, working with an unchanging human nature

Answer 64

Discourse on Inequality

Question 65

The _____ Rousseau found in Venice exemplified for him the way in which bad government causes people to be bad. He contrasted this with the propriety of his home town, Geneva

Answer 65

Corruption

Question 66

Rousseau argued, society could be shaped by its political institutions, there was —in theory—no limit to the ability of political action to reshape society for the better. This assertion marked Rousseau as a distinctively ____ thinker.

Answer 66

Modern

Question 67

Human beings free from society were well-disposed, happy creatures, content in their state of nature. Only two principles guided them: the first, ______; the second, ______.

Answer 67

A Natural Self-love and Desire for Self-Preservation, A Compassion for their Fellow Human Beings

Question 68

______ was responsible for all of the divisions and inequalities that exist within society, according to Rousseau.

Answer 68

The Advent of Private Property

Question 69

According to Rousseau, ____ was the result of division and conflict working against a natural harmony.

Answer 69

Civil Society

Question 70

While his earlier writings had been resolutely bleak in their opposition to conventional society, _____ sought to provide the positive foundations for politics.

Answer 70

The Social Contract

Question 71

Where Hobbes saw law only as a restraint, and freedom existing only in the _____ of law, Rousseau argued that laws could become an _____ of our freedom, provided that those subject to the law also prescribed the law

Answer 71

Absence, Extension

Question 72

Rousseau was not against property, as long as it was distributed fairly. He considered a small, agrarian republic in which all citizens were farmers to be an ____ form of state.

Answer 72

Ideal

Question 73

The sovereign people would embody the “___,” an expression of popular assent. Day-to-day government, however, would depend on specific decisions, requiring a “___.”

Answer 73

General Will, Particular Will

Question 74

It was in this very distinction, Rousseau thought, that ___ between the “general will” and the “particular will” opened up, paving the way for the ___ of the sovereign people.

Answer 74

Conflict, Corruption

Question 75

_____ began when an angry mob stormed the Bastille in Paris on July 14, 1789. The medieval fortress and prison was a symbol of royal power.

Answer 75

The French Revolution