MODULE 4 Flashcards
1
Q
is the basic research or applied research conducted to aid the body of knowledge in the field of medicine
A
MEDICAL RESEARCH
2
Q
TYPES OF RESEARCH
- presents data in the form of NUMBERS and STATISTICAL RESULTS
- variables are clearly uderstood & defined in advamce by the researcher
- Reality is objective, “out there”, and independent of the researcher
- determines the “WHAT”
A
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
3
Q
TYPES OF RESEARCH
- presents data in the form of NARRATION with WORDS
- Researcher may have only rough idea about variable in advance
- Reality is subjective; multiple realities exist in any given situation ( these realities are seen by the participants in the study)
- determines the “WHY & HOW”
A
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
4
Q
it is the basic research, applied research or translational researches conducted to aid and support the body of knowledge in the field of Clinical Practice
A
BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH
5
Q
it is the process of reading and evaluating article, journal, literature and scientific study in a systemic way to reach at a conclusion that one can interpret itseld whether the study results are scientifically proved and applicable to clinical practice
A
LITERATURE EVALUATION
6
Q
is reading already an evaluation
A
yes
7
Q
a FRAMEWORK, or the set of METHODS and PROCEDURES used to collect and analyze data on variables specified in a particular research problem
A
STUDY DESIGN
8
Q
a fast but expensive type of research
A
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
9
Q
cheap but time consuming type of research
A
OBSERVATIONAL STUDY
10
Q
these type of studies requires a lot of time (years)
A
cohort
case control
cross-sectional
11
Q
focus on NOVEL or UNSUAL signs, symptoms, or events
A
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
12
Q
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
- a description of an INDIVIDUAL with a novel or unusal condition
- describe an individual case
A
CASE STUDY
13
Q
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
- a SUMMARY of the health status of SEVERAL individuals who all display similar novel clinical finding or condition
- describe a number of (CONSECUTIVE) cases
A
CASE SERIES
14
Q
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
- uses SURVEYS to gather data about varying subjects.
- the data aims to know the extent to which different conditions can be obtained among these subjects
A
DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY
15
Q
investigator assesses the STATUS OF THE EXPOSURE and the OUTCOME
A
OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
16
Q
OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
present - present
A
CROSS-SECTIONAL study
17
Q
OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
present - future
A
prospective cohort study
18
Q
OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
present - past
A
retrospective cohort study
case-control study
19
Q
retro
A
past
20
Q
pro
A
future
21
Q
- an observational study in which subjects are sampled based upon presence or absence of disease and then their prior exposure status is determined
- both exposure and outcome (disease) have occured BEFORE the start of the study
- the study proceeds BACKWARDS from effect to cause
- uses CONTROL or COMPARISON group
A
CASE-CONTROL STUDY
22
Q
CASE-CONTROL STUDY
subjects are sampled based upon ____
A
presence or absence of disease and then prior exposure
23
Q
CASE-CONTROL STUDY
both exposure and outcome have occured ____ the start of the study
A
BEFORE
24
Q
CASE-CONTROL STUDY
the study proceeds ____ from effect to cause
A
BACKWARDS
25
# **CASE-CONTROL STUDY**
uses ____ or ____ group
control or comparison
26
**drawback** of **CASE-CONTROL** design
BIAS
27
* a **systematic error** in the design, conduct, or analysis of a study that results in a **mistaken estimates** of effect of the exposure on disease
* data **cannot be used** to **calculate** the **incidence** or **prevalanec** of the condition under the study
* **do not** constitue a **random sample**
* consequence: **measures of risk**
BIAS / selection bias
28
**Case-control** studies are particularly **advantageous** for studying ____
outbreaks of diseases
29
**advantageous** for studying **OUTBREAKS** of diseases
case-control studies
30
* defined with respect to their **exposure** to a particular variable and a relationship is sought between this factor and several outcome variables
* groups are distinguished based on an event **NOT arranged** by the **investigator** within a defined **time period** (age, occupation, exposure)
COHORT STUDY
31
# **COHORT STUDY**
are those in which **both** the **exposure** and the **outcome** have **occured BEFORE** the investigation **begins**
RETROSPECTIVE COHORT DESIGN
32
____ design is efficient when a disease is **relatively COMMON** and when the **interval** between the **event** and the **outcome** is **SHORT**
COHORT STUDY DESIGN
33
the ____ design is also **valuable** in **estimating** the **INCIDENCE** of the disease under study
COHORT STUDY DESIGN
34
# **COHORT STUDY**
potential difficulty
outcome may occur many years after exposure
35
* used to determine the **PREVALENCE** of an exposure, an outcome, or an exposure outcome assocaition at a **single point** in time or during a **brief** time interval
* useful in porviding a **snapshot** of the number of individuals who exhibit the variable in question
CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY DESIGN
36
most important in conducting a study
TIME
37
outcome =
disease
38
* studies that are designed to **ANSWER question** or a **hypothesis** in a **prospective** manner
* involves a **measurement** of an **intervention**
EXPERIMENTRAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
39
* a study in which people are **allocated** at **random** (by chance alone) to receive one of several clinical interventions
* one of these interventions is the **standard** of comparison or **control**
* the control may be a **standard practice**, a **placebo**, or **no intervention** at all
* this seeks to **measure** and **compare** the **outcomes** after the participants receive the interventions
* a **QUANTITATIVE study**
RANDOMIZED CLINICAL TRIAL
40
# **RANDOMIZED CLINICAL TRIAL**
someone who **takes part** in a RCT is called a
participant / subject
41
# **RANDOMIZED CLINICAL TRIAL**
what type of study
QUANTITATIVE
42
# **RANDOMIZED CLINICAL TRIAL**
already **available** in the market
POSITIVE control
43
# **RANDOMIZED CLINICAL TRIAL**
placebo
NEGATIVE control
44
* may be **either** qualitative or quantitative
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
45
# **SYSTEMATIC REVIEW**
Researchers conducting **QUALITATIVE** systemic reviews use ____ and ____ to evaluate and synthesize the results of individual investigations
rigorous logic and critical thinking
46
# **SYSTEMATIC REVIEW**
Researchers conducting **QUANTITATIVE** systematic reviews, use ____ to ddescribe the **magnitude** and **ocnsistency** of the experimental effect
STATISTICAL METHODS
47
**QUANTITATIVE** systematic reviews is also termed as
meta-analysis
48
____ **answers** a **DEFINED RESEARCH QUESTION** by **collecting** and **summarizing** all **empirical evidence** that fits pre-specified eligibility criteria
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
49
____ is the **use** of **statistical methods** to **summarize results** of these studies
meta-analysis
50
determine the **EXPOSURE** variables associated with an outcome
CASE CONTROL
51
determine **OUTCOMES** associated with exposure variables
COHORT
52
**Obtain evidence** of exposures, outcomes, or their association
CROSS-SECTION
53
establish **cause & effect** relationships between interventions and outcomes
RANDOMIZED CONTROLL TRIAL
54
**synthesize** findings from individual studies to provide a coherent, integrated answer to a focused research question
SYSTEMATIC REVIEWS
55
* assemble groups that **differ only** in **EXHIBITING OUTCOME**
* determine if groups differ with respect to **suspected antecedent EXPOSURE FACTORS**
CASE CONTROL
56
* assemble groups that **differ** only in **EXPOSURE**
* determine if groups differ with respect to **SUSPECTED OUTCOMES**
COHORT
57
* **gather** information on **exposure** and **outcome** at a **single point** in time
CROSS-SECTION
58
* **examine differences** in **OUTCOMES** among groups receiving **intervention** compared to a **placebo** or **active control group**
RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL
59
* use **critical thinking** approach to gather, evaluate, and synthesize information from **individual research studies** to address a question of clinical relevance
SYSTEMATIC REVIEWS
60
* **study group** selected based on the **exhibiting OUTCOME** of interest
* **control group** matched on all relevant variables **except the outcome of interest**
CASE CONTROL
61
* **study group** selected on the basis of **exhibiting EXPOSURE** of interest
* **control group** mathced on all relevant vaariables excpet **EXPOSURE of interest**
COHORT
62
* group membership may be determined **before** or **after** data are gathered
CROSS-SECTION
63
* assignment to an **intervention** or **control group** is result of a **RANDOM process**
RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL
64
* study results are weighted with respect to **methodologic quality**
SYSTEMATIC REVIEWS
65
* **rare** outcomes, **long** exposure outcome intervals
* **inexpensive** and **easy** to conduct
* can be **completed quickly**
CASE CONTROL
66
* can be used to study **HARMFUL** exposures
* can establish **incidence** of outcome
* **exposure effects** can be examined **retrospectively** or **prospectively**
* best with **RARE exposures**
COHORT
67
* can be used to study many **potential exposure-outcome** associations
* can be used to examine many **subgroup** variables
* subgroups can be **oversampled**
* can be used to study **harmful** exposures
* data can be **obtained easily**, **rapidly**, and **cost-effectively**
CROSS-SECTION
68
* **minimizes bias**
* control group change in response to variables over time
* can examone **more than one** **intervention**; **more than one outcome**
* can be used to establish **cause & effect** relationships
RANDOMIZED CLINICAL TRIAL
69
* **methodologic** guidelines, **focused**, **transparent**, and **obejctive**
* can detect **intervention-outcome relationships** that may be obscured in individual studies
* can explore **differences** among studies
* **EXTREMELY COST-EFFECTIVE**
* study is **quickly completed**
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
70
* susceptible for **many different forms** of **BIAS**
* groups cannot be matched on all variables except **EXPOSURE**
* may be difficult to determine **time relationship** between exposure and outcome
* at best, evidence indicates an association between exposure and outcome
CASE CONTROL
71
* susceptible to **CONFOUNDING**
* groups cannot be matched on all variables except **outcome**
* **inefficient** for **long exposure-outcome** intervals
* may be **EXPENSIVE**
* requires **more patients** than case-control study
COHORT
72
# **SYSTEMATIC REVIEW**
* susceptible to **BIASES**, especially **recall bias** and **volunteer bias**
* often relied on **non-verified**, **self-reported** information
* susceptible to **cause & effect conclusions**
CROSS SECTION
73
* **cannot** be used to study effects of **hamrful interventions**
* can be **expensivve** and **LABOR INTENSIVE**
* participants who **drop our** can **compromise** advantages of randomization
* **multicenter patient** group may **not be similar** to an **individual clinician's patient** group
* must consider role of **commercial sponsors** who have a **vested interested** in study outcome
RANDOMZIED CLINICAL TRIAL
74
* **WEAKNESS** of any observational study, notably **selection bias**
* studies with **larger samples**, or **higher quality**, count more
* studies with **methodologic flaws** are included
* the data summary methods **obscure fine points** of subject, setting, and methods that are essence of clinical practice
* **meta-analysis** of **observational** studies is **not recommended**
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
75
investigates **relationship** between **two variables** (or more) **without** the researcher **controlling** or **manipulating** any of them
CORRELATION
76
asses the **bioequivalency** of two or more products
BIOEQUIVALENCE STUDY
77
evaluate **uses** and **adverse effects** associated with newly approved drug therapies
POST MARKETING SURVEILLANCE
78
report observation on **SINGLE patient**
CASE REPORT
79
evaluate **stability** of drugs in various preparations
STABILITY STUDY
80
report observatin on **SERIES of patiens**
CASE SERIES
81
HIERARCHY OF EVIDENCE
top to bottom
Systematic Reviews
Randomized Control Trials
Cohort studies
Case-control studies
Case series, Case reports
Editorials, expert opinion
82
* use of **current BEST EVIDENCE** in making clinical decisions about the care of individual patients
* it involves integrating the clinician's expertise with the best available **external clinical evidence** derived from **systematic research** to maximize the benefit for the patient
EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE
83
____ is part of EBM
crtical appraisal
84
# **CRITICAL APPRAISAL**
____ the best evidence
find
85
# **CRITICAL APPRAISAL**
____ its quality
appraise
86
# **CRITICAL APPRAISAL**
____ the findings to the practice
apply
87
the process of **carefully** and **systematically examining research** to **judge** its **trustworthiness**, and its **value** and **relevancec** in a particular context
CRITICAL APPRAISAL
88
two broad questions that **critical appraisal** generally seeks to answer
* is this study likely to be **accurate** (validity)
* can we **use** its findings (relevance)
89
# **BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER**
a **brief desccription** on the article's **subject**
TITLE
90
# **BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER**
informs the reader **who conducted the study**
AUTHORS
91
# **BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER**
* **condensed summary**
* background and purpose
* methods
* results
* conclusion
ABSTRACT
92
PARTS OF **ABSTRACT**
Background
methods
results
conclusion
93
# **BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER**
objectives/hypothesis
background and purpose
94
# **BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER**
type of **study design**, brief description of study group/animals/test organisms/test materials
methods
95
# **BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER**
highlights
results
96
# **BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER**
based on the findings
conclusion
97
# **BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER**
* what the study **was all about** and **why it was done**
* gives a **background** of the study/problem/disease state in question
* adequately state **why the study was done** (clearly stated objectives and significance of the study)
INTRODUCTION
98
# **BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER**
* detailed **methods employed**
* **research design** and **reason** for using
* **description** of the **study group** and **how** these were chosen
* detailed **laboratory measurements & procedures**
* detailed **description** of **measuring devices/analytic equipment**
METHODOLOGY
99
# **BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER**
* what was **found**
* **presentation of findings**, no discussion or evaluation
* use of **tables**, **graphs**, **schemes**, or **pictures** to clarify findings that are diffcult to describe with words
* data presented should be **summarized**
* **statistical analysis** are presented starting with a descriptive statistics
RESULTS
100
# **BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER**
* what do the data **mean**?
* **interpret findings** from the study thru **comparison** or **contrasts** with **findings** from **other studies**
* **limitations** and **strengths** of the study should be discussed
DISCUSSION
101
# **BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER**
* **answer** the **objectives** based on findings
* should be stated based on the **results** of the study or should be **supported by the data**
CONCLUSION
102
# **BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER**
other contributors, assistants, funding agency
acknowledgement
103
# **BASIC ELEMENTS OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER**
list of **publications used** in the study
References / Bibliography
