Module 4 Flashcards
(876 cards)
1
Q
What is the definition of animal behaviour?
A
Animal behaviour encompasses both solitary and social actions influenced by physiological systems and processes.
2
Q
Why is behaviour important for animals?
A
Behaviour is crucial for survival, aiding in nutrient acquisition and reproductive success, and maintaining homeostasis.
3
Q
How do honeybees exemplify the importance of behaviour in maintaining homeostasis?
A
Honeybees huddle to conserve heat, demonstrating a behaviour that helps maintain their internal balance.
4
Q
What are Tinbergen’s Four Questions regarding animal behaviour?
A
- what stimulus elicits the behaviour and what physiological mechanisms mediate the response
- how does animal’s experience during growth and development influence the response
- how does the behaviour affect survival and reproduction
- what is the behaviour’s evolutionary history
5
Q
What is the difference between proximate and ultimate causation in animal behaviour?
A
Proximate causation focuses on the ‘how’ of behaviour, while ultimate causation explores the ‘why’ in the context of natural selection.
6
Q
What recognition did Niko Tinbergen receive for his work on animal behaviour?
A
He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1973 for his research on proximate causation.
7
Q
What are fixed action patterns in animal behaviour?
A
Fixed action patterns are sequences of unlearned behaviours triggered by specific stimuli, known as sign stimuli.
8
Q
Can you give an example of a fixed action pattern?
A
The aggressive behaviour of male sticklebacks towards red objects is an example of a fixed action pattern.
9
Q
What is the significance of fixed action patterns in understanding animal behaviour?
A
They help explain the predictability of certain behaviours in response to environmental cues.
10
Q
How do animals navigate during migration?
A
Animals use various environmental cues, such as the sun, stars, and Earth’s magnetic field, for navigation.
11
Q
What role does the circadian clock play in animal navigation?
A
It helps animals track their position relative to the sun, adjusting for its movement throughout the day.
12
Q
How do nocturnal animals navigate?
A
Nocturnal animals can navigate using fixed stars, such as the North Star, which remains constant in the night sky.
13
Q
What evidence supports the ability of homing pigeons to navigate?
A
Experiments show that homing pigeons can sense Earth’s magnetic field, aiding their navigation even without visual cues.
14
Q
What are circadian rhythms?
A
Circadian rhythms are daily cycles of activity and rest, synchronized with environmental light and dark cycles.
15
Q
What are circannual rhythms?
A
Circannual rhythms reflect longer cycles, such as seasonal changes, influencing behaviours like migration and reproduction.
16
Q
How can artificial light exposure affect animal behaviour?
A
Artificial light exposure can alter migratory behaviours, demonstrating the impact of photoperiod on activity.
17
Q
What did William Rowan’s research in 1931 illustrate about animal behaviour?
A
His research linked light cycles to the dispersal patterns of crows, showing the influence of environmental cues.
18
Q
What is the role of animal communication?
A
Animal communication involves the transmission of signals from one individual to another, essential for social interactions.
19
Q
Can you provide an example of an animal signal?
A
The male ruffed grouse’s feather display is an example of a signal that influences female behaviour.
20
Q
What exemplifies a stimulus-response chain in fruit flies?
A
Courtship behavior, where each response serves as a stimulus for the next action.
21
Q
How do male fruit flies identify and approach females?
A
They use visual and olfactory cues, highlighting the role of chemical communication.
22
Q
What role do pheromones play in animal communication?
A
Pheromones are chemical substances used for communication, especially in reproductive contexts among mammals and insects.
23
Q
How do female fruit flies use pheromones?
A
They release pheromones to attract males, demonstrating the role of chemical signals in mating.
24
Q
How far can male spruce budworm moths detect female pheromones?
A
From kilometers away, showcasing long-distance chemical communication.
25
What is the role of pheromones in honeybee colonies?
They maintain social order, influence worker behavior, and inhibit ovary development in workers.
26
What do alarm substances in fish signal?
They signal conspecifics to exhibit a fright response when fish are injured.
27
What does Douglas Chivers' research suggest about alarm substances?
They may have evolved from immune system functions.
28
What is tactile communication in fruit flies?
Males tap females with their forelegs, transferring chemicals that confirm species identity.
29
What does the male fruit fly's wing vibrations produce?
A courtship song, an auditory signal indicating species identity to the female.
30
Why is successful communication crucial for mating in fruit flies?
Females will only allow copulation if all signals are recognized.
31
How do nocturnal and diurnal species differ in communication?
Nocturnal species rely more on olfactory and auditory signals, while diurnal species primarily use visual and auditory signals.
32
Who discovered the 'waggle dance' of honeybees?
Karl von Frisch.
33
What does the waggle dance communicate?
The direction and distance of nectar sources.
34
What does the number of abdominal waggles in the waggle dance indicate?
The distance to the nectar source; more waggles indicate greater distances.
35
What do honeybees perform for food sources within 50 meters?
A 'round dance' to signal nearby nectar availability.
36
What type of communication does the waggle dance represent?
Symbolic communication in the animal kingdom.
37
What are innate behaviors?
Developmentally fixed behaviors exhibited consistently across individuals, regardless of environmental differences.
38
How are innate behaviors important for species survival?
They include fixed action patterns and courtship stimulus-response chains.
39
What does Tinbergen's second question explore?
How experiences during growth influence responses to stimuli.
40
What is cross-fostering in behavioral studies?
Raising young of one species by adults of another to reveal the impact of social and physical environments on behavior.
41
What was demonstrated in studies with California and white-footed mice regarding behavior?
Cross-fostering altered aggressive behaviors, showing the influence of upbringing.
42
What do experiences modify that can affect behaviors like parental care?
Physiological responses.
43
How can the influence of experiences extend across generations?
Through altered behaviors of cross-fostered offspring.
44
What do twin studies compare to understand behavior?
The behavior of identical twins raised apart versus those raised together.
45
What insights do twin studies provide regarding behavioral disorders?
They reveal the interplay of genetics and environment in shaping behaviors associated with disorders like schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, and alcoholism.
46
What is the significance of genetic predispositions and environmental factors in behavioral disorders?
Both significantly shape behaviors, with genetics increasing susceptibility while environmental stressors can trigger onset.
47
What historical contributions helped establish the prominence of twin studies?
Researchers like Thomas Bouchard in the 20th century.
48
What is the concordance rate for schizophrenia in identical twins compared to fraternal twins?
About 50% for identical twins and about 15% for fraternal twins.
49
How do environmental factors influence anxiety disorders according to research?
Trauma can exacerbate genetic predispositions to anxiety.
50
What percentage of the risk for developing alcoholism is attributed to genetics according to twin studies?
About 50%, with environmental influences also being critical.
51
What role does epigenetics play in behavior?
It shows how environmental factors can modify gene expression without altering the DNA sequence.
52
How is learning defined in the context of behavior?
As the modification of behavior based on experiences.
53
What influences the capacity for learning?
The organization of the nervous system established during development and guided by genetic instructions.
54
What is crucial for memory formation in learning?
Changes in neuronal connectivity that allow organisms to adapt behavior based on past experiences.
55
What does research into learning emphasize regarding genetic and environmental contributions?
The need to explore both contributions rather than choosing one over the other.
56
What is imprinting in the context of animal behavior?
A critical learning process where young animals recognize and bond with a parent or caregiver.
57
During what period does imprinting occur?
During a sensitive period in development.
58
What did Konrad Lorenz's experiments with graylag geese demonstrate?
Young birds imprint on the first moving object they encounter, leading to lifelong attachments.
59
How is imprinting applied in conservation efforts?
Captive breeding programs isolate young cranes to ensure they imprint on their species.
60
What are the consequences of failing to bond during the imprinting process?
It can lead to dire consequences for the offspring.
61
What is a holistic approach in understanding learning?
An approach that considers both nature and nurture.
62
What example illustrates how learning can lead to changes in survival strategies?
Studies on animal behavior.
63
What conclusion can be drawn about twin studies and their findings?
They provide a nuanced understanding of the complex interplay between genetics and environment in shaping human behavior.
64
What is the significance of spatial learning in organisms?
It allows organisms to navigate their environment effectively, enhancing their fitness by remembering locations of resources and hazards.
65
What did Tinbergen's studies on digger wasps reveal about spatial learning?
Digger wasps use spatial learning to locate their nests, demonstrating sophisticated memory capabilities.
66
What is a cognitive map?
An internal representation of spatial relationships that allows for flexible navigation beyond simple landmark recognition.
67
How do grey jays demonstrate advanced spatial memory?
They retrieve food caches based on their understanding of the environment's layout.
68
What cognitive abilities do Clark's nutcracker exhibit regarding food caching?
They use geometric rules to locate their food caches, indicating a high level of cognitive processing.
69
What is associative learning?
It involves making connections between different experiences, crucial for adapting behavior based on past outcomes.
70
What is classical conditioning, and who demonstrated it?
Classical conditioning is a learning process where an arbitrary stimulus becomes associated with a significant event, demonstrated by Pavlov.
71
What is operant conditioning?
A learning process that involves shaping behavior through rewards and punishments.
72
Give an example of associative learning in blue jays.
Blue jays learn to avoid monarch butterflies after experiencing their unpleasant taste.
73
Who was B.F. Skinner, and what did he contribute to learning theory?
B.F. Skinner was a pioneer in operant conditioning, demonstrating how behavior can be shaped through reinforcement and punishment.
74
What did Skinner's experiments with rats illustrate?
Rats could learn to press a lever to receive food, showcasing trial-and-error learning.
75
What are reinforcement schedules, and why are they important?
Reinforcement schedules, such as fixed-ratio and variable-ratio, are important in shaping behavior.
76
What limitations do animals exhibit in learning associations?
Animals can associate certain stimuli based on evolutionary adaptations, such as pigeons associating sounds with danger but not colors.
77
How do evolutionary perspectives influence animal learning?
Animals are more likely to learn associations that have survival advantages in their natural environments.
78
What cognitive abilities have been demonstrated in honeybees?
Honeybees can distinguish between 'same' and 'different' in Y-shaped mazes, indicating cognitive processing.
79
What problem-solving skills are evident in chimpanzees and corvids?
They showcase the ability to devise methods to overcome obstacles.
80
What is the relationship between cognition and problem solving in animals?
Cognition involves awareness, reasoning, recollection, and judgment, which are essential for problem-solving across various species.
81
How does Skinner's work relate to behaviorist psychology?
His findings suggest that learning is influenced by the environment and the consequences of actions, laying the foundation for behaviorist psychology.
82
What role does trial-and-error learning play in operant conditioning?
Trial-and-error learning is a method through which behaviors are shaped based on the consequences of actions.
83
What insights do laboratory studies on associative learning provide?
They provide insights into the mechanisms of behavior modification in various species.
84
Why is understanding limitations in animal learning important?
It helps in the study of animal behavior and cognition by revealing how evolutionary adaptations shape learning capabilities.
85
How do cognitive abilities extend beyond primates and marine mammals?
Cognitive abilities are observed in various species, including honeybees, which demonstrate learning and memory capabilities.
86
What behaviors demonstrate the problem-solving abilities of chimpanzees and ravens?
Chimpanzees can stack boxes to reach food, while ravens use tools, such as pulling strings to access food.
87
What does the variability in problem-solving skills among individuals suggest?
It suggests that learning and intelligence are not uniform across a species.
88
What is the significance of the sensitive period in song learning for birds?
Fledglings must hear their species' songs within the first 50 days to develop adult songs.
89
What are the stages of song learning in birds like the white-crowned sparrow?
The stages include memorization of songs, tentative singing (subsong), and crystallization of the final song.
90
How do canaries differ in their song-learning process compared to white-crowned sparrows?
Canaries exhibit a more flexible song-learning process, allowing for the addition of new syllables over time.
91
What role does social learning play in the behavior of young chimpanzees?
Young chimpanzees learn to crack nuts by imitating experienced individuals.
92
How do vervet monkeys demonstrate social learning?
They refine their alarm calls by observing adult responses, showing learning through social confirmation.
93
What is cultural transmission and how does it affect behavioral phenotypes?
Cultural transmission can significantly alter behavioral phenotypes, impacting individual fitness.
94
What is the relationship between natural selection and behavior?
Natural selection influences behavior over long time scales, contrasting with rapid changes seen in learning.
95
What is the focus of Tinbergen's third question in behavioral evolution?
It addresses how behaviors enhance survival and reproductive success.
96
What does foraging behavior encompass?
Foraging behavior includes searching, recognizing, and capturing food.
97
How does the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) serve as a model for studying foraging behavior?
Genetic variations in fruit flies influence food-search strategies.
98
What are the two alleles of the forager gene in fruit flies and their effects?
The alleles are for R (Rover) and for s (sitter), affecting the distance larvae travel while foraging.
99
What does the optimal foraging model analyze?
It applies a cost-benefit analysis to foraging strategies, balancing energy gain against risks.
100
What is the importance of understanding animal behaviors in conservation efforts?
Understanding these behaviors can inform conservation efforts and animal welfare practices.
101
What insight do case studies in problem-solving provide about animal intelligence?
They provide insight into the evolutionary advantages of cognitive abilities in navigating complex environments.
102
How do individual experiences influence problem-solving success in animals?
Individual experiences and abilities significantly influence problem-solving success in species like chimpanzees and ravens.
103
What is the role of auditory experience in song learning for birds?
Auditory experience is crucial for young birds to memorize and develop their species' songs.
104
What is subsong in the context of bird song learning?
Subsong is a phase of tentative singing that follows the memorization of songs.
105
How does cultural transfer of information impact individual fitness?
Cultural transfer can significantly alter behavioral phenotypes, enhancing the fitness of individuals.
106
What is the significance of foraging behavior in the context of survival?
Foraging behavior is essential for survival as it encompasses all activities related to food acquisition.
107
How does natural selection refine foraging behavior?
Natural selection refines foraging behavior for efficiency in food acquisition.
108
What does natural selection favor in foraging behaviors?
Natural selection favors behaviors that minimize foraging costs while maximizing nutritional benefits.
109
How does predation risk influence foraging behavior in mule deer?
Predation risk is a significant cost that influences foraging behavior, affecting food choices based on foraging locations.
110
What are the three main types of mating systems observed in species?
Promiscuous, monogamous, and polygamous relationships.
111
What is sexual dimorphism?
Sexual dimorphism refers to the differences in appearance between males and females, often influenced by the mating system.
112
How do mating systems affect parental care in species?
Monogamous species often exhibit higher parental care due to the demands of young that cannot care for themselves, while polygamous species may see males seeking multiple mates.
113
How does certainty of paternity influence male parental care?
Higher certainty of paternity leads to more male parental care, while lower certainty results in less investment.
114
What percentage of species with internal fertilization exhibit parental care?
Only 7% of species with internal fertilization exhibit parental care.
115
What percentage of species with external fertilization exhibit parental care?
69% of species with external fertilization exhibit parental care.
116
What is the relationship between parental care and fertilization methods?
There is a stark contrast in care levels between species with internal and external fertilization, influencing male involvement in nurturing offspring.
117
What are the two primary forms of sexual selection?
Intersexual selection (mate choice) and intrasexual selection (competition among the same sex).
118
How do female mate preferences influence male traits?
Female mate choice influences male behavior and physical traits, as seen in stalk-eyed flies where longer eyestalks are preferred.
119
What did research on zebra finches reveal about mate selection?
Research showed that females raised by ornamented males preferred ornamented mates, indicating parental influence in mate selection.
120
What is the significance of balancing risk and reward in foraging?
It illustrates how animals optimize foraging strategies to minimize risks while maximizing nutritional intake.
121
How does natural selection shape parental investment behaviors?
Natural selection favors males that invest in their offspring, potentially increasing their reproductive success.
122
What role does certainty of paternity play in parental behavior?
It shapes male parental investment, with higher certainty leading to more equal parental care roles.
123
How does the mating system affect sexual dimorphism?
In monogamous species, males and females are often morphologically similar, while in polygamous species, the sex attracting multiple partners is typically more elaborate.
124
What factors influence the evolution of cautious foraging strategies in prey species?
Predation risk and the need to balance foraging costs with nutritional benefits.
125
What are the implications of parental care in aquatic invertebrates, fishes, and amphibians?
Parental care is more common in males than females and is influenced by reproductive strategies and certainty of paternity.
126
What does ongoing research explore regarding parental care and mating behaviors?
It highlights the complexities of parental investment and the nuances in animal behavior and evolutionary biology.
127
What is the impact of male parental care on reproductive success?
Males that invest in their offspring may increase their reproductive success.
128
How does sexual selection contribute to the evolution of traits in males?
Sexual selection leads to the development of traits that enhance mating success and reproductive advantages.
129
What is the relationship between ornamental traits and male health in mate selection?
Females may select mates based on ornamental traits that indicate male health, enhancing offspring survival.
130
What is mate-choice copying in guppies?
It shows that females may mimic the preferences of others, affecting genetic diversity and reproductive success.
131
What is agonistic behavior in male competition for mates?
It involves ritualized contests determining access to mates or resources, influenced by physical attributes and psychological factors.
132
What does sexual selection lead to in male traits?
It can lead to the evolution of alternative mating strategies, allowing for diverse reproductive tactics within populations.
133
How does game theory apply to mating behavior?
Game theory provides a framework for understanding mating dynamics, where the success of one strategy depends on the strategies of others.
134
What is the significance of the side-blotched lizard in game theory?
It serves as a model with three throat colorations representing different mating strategies, influenced by frequency-dependent selection.
135
What does frequency-dependent selection illustrate in lizards?
The mating success of each lizard type is influenced by the relative abundance of the other types, similar to rock-paper-scissors.
136
How does game theory relate to evolutionary strategies?
It emphasizes reproductive success in relation to other phenotypes, modeling complex interactions like competition and cooperation.
137
What is the Hawk-Dove game in evolutionary biology?
It illustrates how different strategies can coexist in a population based on their relative success.
138
What genetic factors influence courtship behavior in male fruit flies?
The fru gene controls mating rituals, and mutations in this gene lead to significant behavioral changes.
139
How does the vasopressin receptor gene affect prairie voles?
It influences pair-bonding and parental behaviors, showing how genetic variation can lead to different social structures.
140
What is an example of genetic manipulation affecting behavior in voles?
Introducing the vasopressin receptor gene from prairie voles into meadow voles can alter their behavior.
141
What behavioral variation is observed in western garter snakes?
Coastal populations prefer banana slugs, while inland populations avoid them, indicating geographic variation in prey selection.
142
What does research by Patrick Gregory reveal about snake species?
It highlights differences in feeding habits among closely related snake species, shaped by ecological factors.
143
What role does genetic inheritance play in prey selection in snakes?
Young snakes inherit feeding preferences from their mothers, indicating a genetic basis for dietary choices.
144
What is the importance of genetic studies in understanding behavior?
They help elucidate the evolution of complex behaviors and the genetic underpinnings of social structures.
145
How can game theory predict changes in behavior over time?
It analyzes periodic shifts in color types within populations to understand underlying evolutionary pressures.
146
What is Darwinian fitness in the context of game theory?
It measures the success of a phenotype in a given environment compared to others, central to evolutionary analysis.
147
What factors influence the outcomes of male competition for mates?
Physical attributes like size and strength, along with psychological factors, play a role.
148
What is the relationship between genetic variation and social behavior in closely related species?
Genetic variation can lead to different social structures, as seen in prairie and meadow voles.
149
How does ecological variation affect behavior in snakes?
Different geographic populations exhibit distinct prey preferences based on their environments.
150
What is the significance of behavioral variation in evolutionary biology?
It provides insights into how species adapt to their environments and the role of genetics in behavior.
151
What does the study of mate-choice copying reveal about female preferences?
It indicates that female preferences can be influenced by the choices of other females, impacting reproductive success.
152
How does agonistic behavior contribute to male reproductive success?
It determines access to mates or resources through contests that reflect physical and psychological attributes.
153
What is the evolutionary advantage of recognizing prey by scent in coastal populations?
It provides a competitive advantage and leads to increased fitness over generations.
154
How does natural selection influence behavioral adaptations?
Natural selection drives behavioral adaptations in response to environmental changes.
155
What is altruism in animal behavior?
Altruism refers to behaviors that reduce an individual's fitness while increasing the fitness of others.
156
Give an example of altruistic behavior in Richardson's ground squirrels.
They exhibit alarm calling behavior to warn others of predators, increasing risk for the caller but aiding the group.
157
What is kin selection?
Kin selection is natural selection that favors altruistic behavior by enhancing the reproductive success of relatives.
158
What is inclusive fitness?
Inclusive fitness refers to the total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and aiding relatives.
159
Who proposed Hamilton's Theory and what does it suggest?
William Hamilton proposed that individuals can increase their genetic representation by helping close relatives.
160
What is Hamilton's Rule?
Altruism is favored when the benefit multiplied by the coefficient of relatedness exceeds the cost to the altruist (rB > C).
161
What are the key variables in determining altruistic behavior according to Hamilton's Rule?
The benefit to the recipient, the cost to the altruist, and the coefficient of relatedness.
162
Provide an example of how kin selection operates in honeybee societies.
Worker bees are sterile and protect the hive and the queen, sacrificing their lives in defense.
163
What is reciprocal altruism?
Reciprocal altruism refers to altruistic acts between non-relatives, with the expectation of future reciprocation.
164
Give an example of reciprocal altruism in animals.
Baboons helping each other in fights or wolves sharing food.
165
What is the significance of game theory in understanding altruism?
The ***-for-tat strategy illustrates how cooperation can evolve through reciprocal interactions.
166
What is sociobiology?
Sociobiology is E. O. Wilson's theory that certain behaviors are expressions of genes perpetuated by natural selection.
167
How do cultural influences affect human behavior according to sociobiology?
Human societies develop complex structures that influence behavior beyond mere survival and reproduction.
168
What role does reciprocal altruism play in human behavior?
It is crucial for addressing collective challenges like climate change.
169
What is the definition of play in developmental behavior?
Play is often seen as purposeless behavior recognized in both children and young animals.
170
What are the types of play and their functions?
Types of play include object play, locomotor play, and social play, serving different functions in development.
171
What is the function of play in development?
Play may prepare individuals for unexpected events and enhance adaptability.
172
What is the relationship between altruism and genetic relatedness?
Altruistic behaviors are influenced by the degree of genetic relatedness, with closer relatives being favored.
173
How does altruism challenge traditional views of evolution?
It challenges the notion of selfish behavior by showing that helping others can also enhance one's own genetic success.
174
What is an example calculation illustrating Hamilton's Rule?
In a rescue scenario, if a sister risks her life to save her brother, the potential benefit (2 offspring) must outweigh the risk (0.25 chance of drowning).
175
How can experimental transplants help in understanding species distribution?
Experimental transplants can help determine potential ranges for species, revealing their adaptability.
176
How can negative interactions with predators affect species survival?
Negative interactions with predators or herbivores can limit species survival; for example, seed-eating mammals restrict sugar maple distribution in warmer climates.
177
How can research findings inform conservation strategies?
They highlight the need to protect vulnerable species and habitats affected by climate change.
178
How can the evolution of traits in species lead to ecological changes?
The evolution of traits like body size in guppies can lead to ecological changes, demonstrating the feedback loop between ecology and evolution.
179
How did the origin of plants affect carbon cycling?
The origin of plants significantly altered carbon cycling, leading to ecological changes that provided new habitats and food sources for various organisms.
180
How do abiotic and biotic factors interact in an ecosystem?
They shape overall ecosystem dynamics, affecting species interactions and community structure.
181
How do biomes contribute to ecological studies?
Understanding biomes is crucial for ecological studies and conservation efforts.
182
How do disturbances affect ecosystems?
Disturbances like storms and fires can reshape communities by altering resource availability and creating patchiness.
183
How do forests affect microclimates?
Forests create cooler, humid microclimates due to reduced solar radiation and wind.
184
How do freshwater and marine biomes differ in terms of salt concentration?
Freshwater biomes have low salt concentrations (<0.1%), while marine biomes average around 3%.
185
How do global climate patterns influence ecosystems?
Global climate patterns, influenced by solar energy and Earth's movement, affect temperature, precipitation, and wind patterns, which are essential for predicting climate change impacts on ecosystems.
186
How do invasive species affect native populations?
The introduction of exotic species by humans can lead to the decline or extinction of native species, highlighting the impact of biotic factors.
187
How do moisture levels affect species distribution in different habitats?
Low moisture levels restrict many species in desert and grassland habitats.
188
How do mountains influence local climate?
Mountains cause warm, moist air to rise and cool, leading to precipitation on the windward side and creating a rain shadow effect on the leeward side.
189
How do seasonal changes affect freshwater ecosystems?
They can lead to turnover events, redistributing nutrients and oxygen in lakes.
190
How does climate change influence species movement?
It can drive historical range expansions, as illustrated by the wood turtle.
191
How does climate influence the distribution of species in aquatic environments?
The interplay between climate and aquatic environments shapes the distribution of species and ecological communities.
192
How does coastal upwelling affect marine life?
It supports rich marine ecosystems and fisheries, providing abundant food sources for marine mammals and birds.
193
How does human activity impact species distribution?
It can alter habitats, leading to declines in species populations, as seen with the wood turtle.
194
How does slope orientation affect local climate?
South-facing slopes receive more sunlight than north-facing slopes, influencing temperature and species distribution.
195
How does the cattle egret exploit human activities for survival?
The cattle egret follows livestock to access food resources, illustrating how species can exploit human activities.
196
How does the end of the last ice age relate to current species distribution?
Fossil pollen records show how tree distributions expanded northward as glaciers retreated, providing insights into future shifts.
197
How has climate change affected sea ice extent in the Arctic?
Climate change has led to a significant reduction in sea ice extent, with September 2018 recording the sixth lowest extent at 4.59 million square kilometers.
198
How has geographic isolation affected kangaroo evolution?
It has led to unique evolutionary paths and limited their distribution.
199
How have ectothermic organisms adapted to cope with temperature extremes?
Ectothermic organisms, like wood turtles, have adapted behaviors such as basking to raise body temperature and utilizing water to avoid freezing.
200
How have human activities impacted natural biomes?
Human activities have significantly altered natural biomes, often replacing them with urban or agricultural landscapes.
201
What abiotic factors characterize microclimates?
Temperature, light, water, and nutrients influence the distribution and abundance of organisms.
202
What adaptations do wood turtles exhibit to survive in temperate forests?
Wood turtles exhibit specific adaptations, including behavioral strategies to manage temperature and habitat use.
203
What are abiotic factors that influence species distribution?
Abiotic factors include temperature, water, salinity, sunlight, and soil composition, significantly influencing where species can survive and reproduce.
204
What are abiotic factors that influence species survival?
Nonliving elements like temperature, light, water, and nutrients.
205
What are biotic factors in species distribution?
Interactions with other organisms, such as competition, predation, and symbiosis.
206
What are Chinook winds and where do they occur?
Chinook winds in southern Alberta exemplify rapid temperature changes caused by mountains.
207
What are climographs used for in studying biomes?
Climographs illustrate annual mean temperature and precipitation, highlighting differences among biomes.
208
What are dispersal barriers and how do they affect species distribution?
Dispersal barriers, such as geographic features and habitat types, can limit species from colonizing new areas.
209
What are ecotones in relation to biomes?
Ecotones are transitional areas where biomes meet, often without sharp boundaries.
210
What are key features of freshwater ecosystems?
Temperature stratification, light penetration, and nutrient availability.
211
What are microclimates?
Localized climatic conditions influenced by environmental features such as shade and soil evaporation.
212
What are some direct consequences of climate change?
Changes in wind and precipitation patterns, along with more frequent extreme weather events.
213
What are the ecological implications of declining algal productivity in the Arctic?
The decline in algal productivity threatens the food web by reducing the availability of organic carbon for higher trophic levels.
214
What are the general features of terrestrial biomes?
Terrestrial biomes are named for their predominant vegetation and climatic features, supporting unique microorganisms, fungi, and animal species.
215
What are the two main categories of aquatic biomes?
Freshwater and marine biomes.
216
What are the typical thickness and seasonal extent of sea ice in the Arctic Archipelago?
Sea ice is typically 2-3 meters thick, with seasonal variations ranging from minimal coverage in summer to approximately 14 million square kilometers in winter.
217
What are upwelling zones and why are they important?
Upwelling zones are areas where cold, nutrient-rich water rises to the surface, critical for marine productivity and supporting a significant portion of global fish catches.
218
What can fossil pollen records reveal about climate change?
They offer insights into how species distributions may change in response to current climate change.
219
What characterizes the aphotic zone?
It lacks light, making photosynthesis impossible.
220
What characterizes the Mediterranean climate?
It has hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, influenced by coastal dynamics.
221
What defines aquatic biomes?
Aquatic biomes are characterized by their physical environment rather than vegetation.
222
What do case studies on species adaptations highlight?
They highlight the intricate relationships between species and their environments, shaped by both natural and anthropogenic factors.
223
What does the concept of the fundamental niche describe?
The fundamental niche describes the range of abiotic conditions that allow a species to persist, which varies among different organisms.
224
What ecological factors restrict where species can thrive?
Habitat preferences and historical dispersal patterns.
225
What emphasizes the need for conservation efforts regarding wood turtles?
The decline of wood turtle populations due to habitat loss and human-related mortality emphasizes the need for conservation efforts.
226
What factors determine the location and structure of terrestrial biomes?
Climate and disturbance are key factors.
227
What factors shape species distributions?
Both ecological and evolutionary histories, as well as biotic and abiotic factors.
228
What happens in cleared areas regarding temperature extremes?
Cleared areas experience greater temperature extremes due to increased solar radiation and wind exposure.
229
What happens to the productivity of microbial life in sea ice during winter months?
There is a notable decrease in productivity during winter months due to limited light.
230
What has led to the decline of wood turtle populations?
Human activities have significantly reduced suitable habitats for wood turtles, leading to isolated populations and increased mortality rates.
231
What influences the characteristics of freshwater biomes?
Surrounding terrestrial biomes, including soil and biotic components, as well as water flow patterns and climate.
232
What is a prime example of a species adapting to human-modified environments?
The coyote's range expansion is a prime example, thriving in agricultural and suburban areas.
233
What is an example of a short-term eco-evolutionary effect?
Rapid evolutionary changes in guppy populations when predators are removed, affecting ecosystem nitrogen levels.
234
What is climate change?
A long-term directional change in climate lasting over three decades, influenced by human activities.
235
What is dispersal in the context of species distribution?
The movement of individuals away from their origin, impacting where species can thrive.
236
What is natural range expansion?
The process by which species adapt to changing climates and habitats over time.
237
What is the abyssal zone?
A deep-sea zone found at depths of 2000-6000 m, characterized by extreme conditions and unique organisms.
238
What is the benthic zone?
A zone composed of sediments that supports diverse communities relying on detritus for food.
239
What is the impact of human agricultural practices on species distribution?
The cattle egret's range expansion is linked to human agricultural practices, showcasing how human activity can alter species distributions.
240
What is the impact of seasonal vs. year-round precipitation patterns on biomes?
Variations in precipitation patterns can lead to different biomes in similar climatic regions.
241
What is the importance of understanding the dynamics of disturbances?
Understanding disturbances can inform forest management practices, such as prescribed burns.
242
What is the photic zone in aquatic environments?
The area where photosynthesis occurs due to sufficient light availability.
243
What is the primary focus of ecology in relation to climate change?
Ecology aims to understand how climate change affects species distribution and abundance.
244
What is the rain shadow effect?
It results in dry conditions on the leeward side of mountains, contributing to desert formation.
245
What is the relationship between biomes and biodiversity?
Each biome supports unique species adapted to specific environments, contributing to overall biodiversity.
246
What is the relationship between ecological interactions and evolutionary changes?
Ecological interactions can drive evolutionary changes, and vice versa, creating a complex interplay that shapes biodiversity over time.
247
What is the relationship between ocean currents and nutrient distribution?
It is vital for understanding marine biodiversity and productivity.
248
What is the role of conservation efforts in relation to biomes?
Conservation efforts are crucial for preserving remaining natural habitats.
249
What is the significance of conservation efforts driven by ecological research?
Conservation efforts are increasingly informed by ecological research, as seen in studies of species like the threatened wood turtle, which has experienced range contraction due to environmental changes.
250
What is the significance of frequent fires in certain biomes?
Frequent fires in biomes like grasslands and coniferous forests are essential for maintaining ecological balance.
251
What is the significance of understanding species distribution dynamics?
It is crucial for conservation efforts and habitat management.
252
What is the significance of vegetation type in defining biomes?
Biomes are major life zones characterized by vegetation type in terrestrial environments.
253
What is upwelling and why is it important?
A process where nutrient-rich deep waters rise to the surface, enhancing productivity and supporting marine ecosystems.
254
What is vertical layering in biomes?
Vertical layering refers to distinct layers such as canopy, understory, and ground layer, providing diverse habitats for various animal species.
255
What limits the northern distribution of species like the wood turtle?
The northern limit is often set by summer temperatures, which affect embryo development and hatching success.
256
What local climate effects are observed in coastal regions?
Coastal regions experience local climate moderation due to oceanic influences, leading to arid climates just a few kilometers inland.
257
What local factors can modify climate?
Local climate can be modified by large bodies of water and mountain ranges, influencing temperature and precipitation patterns.
258
What percentage of Earth's surface do marine biomes cover?
Marine biomes cover 75% of Earth's surface.
259
What role do biotic factors play in species distribution?
Biotic factors, such as interactions with other species, must be considered if abiotic factors do not explain a species' absence.
260
What role do marine algae and photosynthetic bacteria play in the ecosystem?
They are vital for oxygen production and carbon dioxide consumption globally.
261
What role do microscopic algae play in the Arctic marine ecosystem?
Microscopic algae form a unique microcommunity within the ice, contributing significantly to the Arctic's productivity, accounting for up to 20% of total productivity during summer months.
262
What role does climate play in biome distribution?
Climate, particularly temperature and precipitation, significantly influences biome locations.
263
What role does continued research play in conservation?
It is essential to adapt conservation efforts in response to ongoing environmental changes and to preserve Earth's biodiversity.
264
What scientific methods do ecologists use to study interactions in ecosystems?
Ecologists employ observation, hypothesis generation, and experimentation to understand ecological dynamics.
265
What significant warming trend has occurred since 1900?
Earth has warmed significantly, with projections indicating further increases by 2100.
266
What types of environments are included in freshwater biomes?
Lakes, rivers, and wetlands, each with unique ecological dynamics.
267
What will the upcoming chapters in ecology focus on?
They will explore population, community, ecosystem, and global ecology, and the impact of human activities on biodiversity.
268
Why is a holistic approach necessary in conservation?
The interconnectedness of ecosystems means that changes in one area can affect others.
269
Why is sea ice critical for marine mammals in the Arctic?
Sea ice provides essential habitats for hunting and breeding for iconic marine mammals such as polar bears, seals, and beluga whales.
270
Why is temperature crucial for biological processes in species distribution?
Extreme temperatures can denature proteins or cause cellular damage, thus limiting species distribution.
271
Why is the health of freshwater biomes important?
The health of freshwater biomes is closely linked to surrounding terrestrial ecosystems, affecting biodiversity and nutrient cycling.
272
Why is understanding ecological interactions important for conservation?
It is crucial for developing effective strategies to mitigate the effects of climate change.
273
What is the shape and composition of Sable Island?
Crescent shape and sandy composition held together by beachgrass and small plants.
274
Why is Sable Island ecologically significant?
It hosts endemic invertebrates and the largest population of grey seals globally, serving as a critical nesting site for hundreds of marine bird species.
275
What nickname is given to Sable Island due to its maritime history?
The 'Graveyard of the Atlantic' due to over 350 shipwrecks.
276
What factors shape the unique ecosystem of Sable Island?
Isolation and harsh environmental conditions influence the species that can thrive there.
277
What is the significance of conservation efforts on Sable Island?
They are crucial for maintaining the ecological integrity of its unique flora and fauna.
278
What challenges have been faced with species introduction on Sable Island?
Mixed results; for example, a stunted tree is the only survivor of numerous planting efforts.
279
What was the outcome of the horse introduction to Sable Island in 1760?
The horses adapted and thrived, growing to a population of 512 by 2017.
280
What social structures exist within the horse population on Sable Island?
Dominant stallions, harems, and bachelor groups illustrate complex social dynamics.
281
How does resource availability affect horse populations on Sable Island?
The west end has more resources than the east, leading to higher competition and smaller carrying capacity on the east.
282
What is the focus of Dr. Philip McLoughlin's long-term study on Sable Island?
How resource access impacts individual contributions to population dynamics.
283
How does resource availability correlate with reproductive success in horses?
Horses with better access to resources tend to have higher birth rates and healthier foals.
284
What is the definition of a population in ecological terms?
A group of individuals of the same species in a specific area, relying on shared resources and environmental factors.
285
What can define the boundaries of populations?
Boundaries can be natural (like islands) or defined by researchers based on study needs.
286
What does population density refer to?
The number of individuals per unit area.
287
What does dispersion describe in an ecological context?
The spatial arrangement of individuals within a given area.
288
What methods can be used to estimate population density?
Various sampling techniques, including direct counts and mark-recapture methods.
289
Why is understanding population dynamics important for conservation?
It provides insights into ecological interactions and helps manage wildlife populations effectively.
290
What ecological model can be studied through the population dynamics on Sable Island?
It serves as a model for understanding similar ecological systems and their responses to environmental changes.
291
What is the impact of introduced species on native species?
Introduced species can lead to competition with native species, affecting biodiversity and ecosystem health.
292
What is the significance of monitoring population dynamics in closed ecosystems?
It is crucial for conservation efforts, particularly in unique environments like Sable Island.
293
Why is understanding population dynamics important?
It helps in predicting changes in species populations due to environmental pressures or human activities.
294
What is required for effective management of wildlife populations?
A thorough understanding of their ecological and social structures.
295
What sampling technique is commonly used to estimate population sizes?
The mark-recapture method.
296
How does the mark-recapture method work?
It involves capturing, marking, and releasing individuals to estimate population size based on recapture rates.
297
What does the mark-recapture formula (N = s * n / x) estimate?
Population size, assuming equal capture probabilities and no population changes during the study period.
298
What is a case study that demonstrates innovative methods in population ecology?
Gormley and colleagues studied Hector's dolphins using photographic identification.
299
What role does technology play in population studies?
It revolutionizes studies by allowing for more efficient data collection, such as using drones and camera traps.
300
What are the three primary patterns of dispersion in populations?
Clumped, uniform, and random.
301
What does clumped dispersion indicate about a population?
It often results from environmental factors that favor group living, such as resource availability or mating behaviors.
302
What causes uniform dispersion among individuals?
Direct interactions among individuals, often related to territoriality or resource competition.
303
What does random dispersion suggest about individual interactions?
It occurs in environments with consistent conditions, indicating a lack of strong interactions among individuals.
304
What are the two primary reproductive strategies in organisms?
Iteroparous and semelparous.
305
What is iteroparity?
It involves multiple reproductive cycles, typically resulting in a single calf.
306
What is semelparity?
It involves a single reproductive event producing many offspring.
307
How do survival rates influence reproductive strategies?
The survival rate of offspring and adult survival likelihood are critical in determining the evolutionary success of these strategies.
308
In what type of environment is semelparity advantageous?
In unpredictable environments with low adult survival.
309
What is favored in stable environments regarding reproductive strategies?
Iteroparity, which is associated with higher adult survival rates.
310
How does energy allocation shift throughout an organism's life?
Juveniles prioritize growth and transition to reproduction as they mature.
311
What does Dr. Jason Treberg's research highlight?
How energy allocation impacts life history traits in fish.
312
What trade-offs do organisms face in reproductive strategies?
Between the number of offspring produced and the resources allocated to each, impacting overall survival rates.
313
What can happen when organisms produce many offspring?
It can lead to lower survival rates for parents, as seen in studies on common eiders.
314
What selective pressures influence offspring production strategies?
They dictate whether organisms produce many small offspring or fewer, larger offspring.
315
What is parental investment and why is it important in species like primates?
Parental investment refers to the resources and care that parents provide to their offspring, which is crucial for enhancing the fitness and survival of a few offspring.
316
What is K-selection and how does it differ from r-selection?
K-selection (density-dependent) favors traits that enhance survival in crowded environments, while r-selection (density-independent) maximizes reproduction in uncrowded environments.
317
How do density-dependent factors influence population dynamics?
Density-dependent factors influence birth and death rates based on population density, regulating populations through negative feedback mechanisms.
318
What is an example of a density-independent factor?
Drought stress affecting dune fescue grass is an example of a density-independent factor impacting mortality regardless of population density.
319
What happens to population growth when birth rates exceed death rates?
Populations grow when birth rates exceed death rates and decline otherwise.
320
How does resource competition affect foal mortality rates?
Foal mortality rates increase due to competition among crowded mares for limited food resources, leading to insufficient milk production for offspring survival.
321
What are K-selected and r-selected species, and how do they thrive in different environments?
K-selected species, like mature trees in old-growth forests, thrive in stable environments with limited resources, while r-selected species, like weeds, flourish in disturbed habitats.
322
What does the logistic growth model illustrate about populations?
The logistic growth model illustrates how populations approach carrying capacity, with growth rates decreasing as resources become limited.
323
Why is understanding population dynamics crucial for ecologists?
Understanding population dynamics is essential for predicting population behavior and managing ecosystems effectively.
324
What is the significance of negative feedback mechanisms in population dynamics?
Negative feedback mechanisms are crucial for understanding population growth limitations, as they regulate populations through increased competition and decreased reproduction.
325
How have moose and wolf populations on Isle Royale been affected by each other?
The introduction of wolves around 1950 has led to significant fluctuations in moose populations, illustrating the complex predator-prey relationships in ecosystems.
326
What do long-term ecological studies reveal about moose and wolf populations?
Long-term studies reveal cycles of increase and decline in both moose and wolf populations, challenging previous assumptions of stability in large mammals.
327
What role do life history strategies play in ecological interactions?
Life history strategies significantly influence ecological interactions, such as competition and predation, shaping community dynamics.
328
What is the impact of changing environmental conditions on life history strategies?
Future research may focus on how changing environmental conditions affect life history strategies and population dynamics.
329
How do ecological implications of life history strategies affect biodiversity?
The interplay between life history traits and environmental conditions is essential for understanding biodiversity and ecosystem resilience.
330
What visual aids help illustrate population dynamics and regulation mechanisms?
Figures in ecological studies, such as Figure 53.18 and Figure 53.19, provide visual examples of various density-dependent population regulation mechanisms and population changes over time.
331
What is the importance of long-term studies in understanding population health?
Long-term studies are necessary to grasp the full impact of population dynamics on health and conservation efforts.
332
How does competition among species affect ecological community dynamics?
Competition among species influences community dynamics by affecting resource availability and population survival.
333
What is the relationship between population density and reproduction rates?
High population density often leads to increased competition, which can decrease reproduction rates.
334
Why is it important for ecologists to analyze life history evolution?
Analyzing life history evolution helps ecologists understand population dynamics and formulate hypotheses for ecosystem management.
335
What are the ecological implications of density-dependent regulation?
Density-dependent regulation can lead to population stability or fluctuations, impacting ecosystem health and species interactions.
336
What is the significance of predator-prey dynamics in ecosystems?
They highlight the importance of maintaining balanced ecosystems.
337
What are the population cycles observed in snowshoe hares and lynx?
Snowshoe hares exhibit population cycles approximately every 10 years, influenced by predation and resource availability.
338
What does the food shortage hypothesis suggest about population declines?
It suggests that overpopulation leads to resource depletion, causing population declines.
339
How does the predation hypothesis explain population cycles in snowshoe hares?
It posits that lynx populations fluctuate based on hare availability, leading to cyclical patterns.
340
What did research in the Yukon reveal about hare population cycles?
It indicated that food availability alone does not account for these cycles; predation plays a crucial role.
341
What is the impact of predator removal on hare survival rates?
Predator removal significantly increases hare survival rates.
342
Why are immigration and emigration important in population dynamics?
They influence genetic diversity, population stability, and overall ecosystem health.
343
What does high emigration indicate about habitat conditions?
It can indicate resource scarcity or poor habitat conditions.
344
What are metapopulations and why are they important?
Metapopulations consist of interconnected local populations, crucial for species survival in fragmented habitats.
345
How does the collared pika exemplify metapopulation dynamics?
It relies on dispersal to recolonize after local extinctions.
346
What has been the trend in human population growth from 1650 to 2019?
The human population surged from 500 million in 1650 to over 7.7 billion in 2019.
347
What are the projected human population figures by 2050?
Projections estimate the population will reach between 8.1 to 10.6 billion.
348
What factors contributed to the slowing growth rates of the human population?
Changes in birth rates and resource availability have contributed to the slowing growth rates.
349
What does the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) measure?
The TFR measures the expected number of children per woman.
350
What influences the Total Fertility Rate (TFR)?
Economic, social, and political factors influence the TFR.
351
Why is understanding population dynamics crucial for global challenges?
It is essential for addressing sustainability and social equity.
352
How have historical milestones in population growth provided context?
They help understand current trends in population dynamics.
353
What role does habitat connectivity play in conservation strategies?
It is vital for maintaining biodiversity and species survival.
354
What is the relationship between resource competition and population dynamics?
High resource competition can lead to increased emigration and affect population growth.
355
What is the significance of managing predator populations in ecosystems?
Managing predator populations can lead to increased prey populations, impacting ecosystem balance.
356
What is the historical context of the study of population dynamics?
Early theories primarily focused on resource availability.
357
What is the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) trend in South Korea?
South Korea reached replacement level TFR by 1985.
358
How has China's one-child policy affected its TFR?
China's one-child policy drastically reduced its Total Fertility Rate.
359
When is India projected to reach replacement level TFR?
India is projected to reach replacement level by 2030.
360
What is a common characteristic of TFRs in industrialized nations?
Industrialized nations often have TFRs below replacement level, risking population decline without immigration.
361
Where is current population growth concentrated?
Current growth is concentrated in less industrialized countries, highlighting global disparities.
362
What does age structure represent?
Age structure represents the distribution of individuals across different ages, often depicted in pyramids.
363
What does a youthful, bottom-heavy age structure indicate?
Countries with high birth and death rates, like Somalia, show a youthful, bottom-heavy age structure.
364
What does Canada's age structure indicate due to the baby boom?
Canada's age structure reflects a bulge in the 50-59 age range, indicating future healthcare needs.
365
What does Mexico's age structure suggest?
Mexico's age structure suggests a transition phase, with declining birth rates.
366
Why are age structure diagrams important?
Age structure diagrams are essential for predicting societal challenges and resource allocation.
367
What impact does a decreasing proportion of youth have on Canada?
A decreasing proportion of youth in Canada will increase pressure on healthcare and pension systems.
368
What adjustments are necessary due to aging populations in industrialized nations?
Aging populations necessitate adjustments in workforce and social services.
369
What challenges do countries with youthful populations face?
Countries with youthful populations face challenges in education and employment opportunities.
370
How does demographic transition influence policy decisions?
The demographic transition influences economic growth and social stability, affecting policy decisions.
371
What has happened to global infant mortality rates since 1955?
Global infant mortality has decreased from 148 deaths per 1000 live births in 1955 to 34 today.
372
What does the rise in life expectancy from 1955 to today indicate?
Life expectancy has risen from 48 years in 1955 to 71 years, indicating better living conditions.
373
What regional disparities exist in infant mortality?
Afghanistan shows high infant mortality compared to Denmark and South Korea.
374
How does socio-economic status affect health outcomes?
Socio-economic status directly impacts health outcomes, with wealthier nations generally experiencing lower infant mortality and higher life expectancy.
375
What are critical factors influencing health indicators?
Access to healthcare, nutrition, and education are critical factors influencing health indicators.
376
What is carrying capacity?
Carrying capacity refers to the maximum population size an environment can sustain indefinitely without resource degradation.
377
What factors influence carrying capacity?
Factors influencing carrying capacity include food production, water availability, and ecological footprints.
378
What is the average ecological footprint estimated at?
The average ecological footprint is estimated at 1.7 global hectares (gha), with developed nations often exceeding this limit.
379
What challenges remain despite technological advancements in food production?
Technological advancements have allowed food production to keep pace with population growth, but distribution remains a challenge.
380
What may limit future population growth?
Future growth may be limited by environmental degradation and resource depletion, necessitating careful planning.
381
Give an example of commensalism in nature.
Barnacles on whales and algae on turtle shells, where hitchhikers gain a habitat with minimal impact on the host.
382
How can commensal relationships be complex?
Hitchhikers may inadvertently affect host fitness, such as reducing movement efficiency.
383
How can ecological niches evolve?
Ecological niches can evolve over time due to natural selection, leading to adaptations that enhance survival and resource use.
384
How can human activities disrupt food webs?
Human activities can lead to the decline of key species, disrupting the balance of predator and prey relationships within food webs.
385
How can two communities with the same species richness differ in diversity?
They can differ significantly based on relative abundance; a community with equal distribution among species is perceived as more diverse than one dominated by a single species.
386
How do changes in food chain dynamics affect biodiversity?
They can have cascading effects on community structure and biodiversity.
387
How do disturbances affect lodgepole pine forests?
Disturbances like fire and insect outbreaks shape these forests, allowing lodgepole pine to colonize burned areas and preventing shade-tolerant species from dominating.
388
How do disturbances alter resource availability in ecosystems?
Disturbances can remove organisms or change the availability of resources, leading to shifts in community structure.
389
How do diverse communities resist invasive species?
Diverse communities are better at resisting invasives, as shown in experiments with tunicates in Long Island Sound.
390
How do juvenile fish utilize kelp forests?
Juvenile fish, such as cod, utilize the kelp blades for protection from predators while feeding on zooplankton.
391
How do lemmings function in the Arctic tundra food web?
Lemmings serve as a crucial link by being preyed upon by multiple predators while also consuming various plant types.
392
How do marine ecosystems suffer from human activities?
Marine ecosystems are affected by activities such as ocean trawling, which devastates seafloor habitats.
393
How do pathogens control sea urchin populations in Nova Scotia?
Pathogens play a role in maintaining ecological balance by controlling these populations.
394
How do smaller islands affect species dynamics?
Smaller islands have lower immigration rates and higher extinction rates due to limited resources.
395
How do some parasites manipulate host behavior?
Some parasites alter host behavior to enhance their transmission to the next host.
396
How do species interactions affect population sizes?
The balance of species interactions can lead to changes in population sizes and community composition over time.
397
How do sugar maples affect eastern North American forests?
They influence shading and soil nutrient availability, impacting other species.
398
How do the life cycles of many parasites typically function?
Many parasites have complex life cycles involving multiple hosts.
399
How does character displacement enhance biodiversity?
By promoting niche differentiation and reducing competition.
400
How does character displacement manifest in species?
Character displacement can lead to morphological differences, such as beak size in Galápagos finches, allowing species to exploit different food sources.
401
How does climate influence species richness in tropical regions?
The tropics benefit from a longer growing season, which accelerates biological processes and speciation.
402
How does higher photosynthetic production affect food chains?
It can lead to longer food chains, as seen in tropical tree-hole communities.
403
How does Juncus gerardi facilitate other plant species?
It improves soil conditions by preventing salt build-up and oxygen depletion, allowing for greater plant diversity.
404
How does secondary succession differ from primary succession?
Secondary succession is generally faster than primary succession due to the presence of soil and seed banks.
405
How does species richness affect immigration and extinction rates on islands?
As species richness increases, immigration rates decrease and extinction rates increase due to competition for resources.
406
How does the introduction of H1N1 in 2009 relate to disease spread?
It illustrates how global travel can facilitate the rapid spread of diseases.
407
How does the island equilibrium model relate to human activity?
Human activity, such as habitat destruction, can lead to significant declines in species diversity.
408
How does the sea star function as a keystone species?
By preying on mussels, it helps maintain species diversity in intertidal zones.
409
How does the study of parasitism relate to evolutionary adaptations?
The study of parasitism provides insights into evolutionary adaptations and coevolution between species.
410
How has agricultural development impacted North American grasslands?
Agricultural development has transformed North American grasslands into fragmented habitats.
411
How long can primary succession take?
The process can take hundreds to thousands of years.
412
Provide an example of top-down control in an ecosystem.
The decline of sea otters due to orca predation in Pacific kelp forests, which allowed sea urchin populations to explode and destroy kelp forests.
413
What adaptations did early colonizers of sticklebacks develop?
Deeper bodies advantageous for bottom feeding.
414
What adaptations did later colonizers of sticklebacks maintain?
A streamlined shape for open-water feeding.
415
What adaptations do herbivores have to exploit plant resources?
Herbivores have specialized mouthparts and digestive systems.
416
What are exploitative interactions in ecology?
Interactions where one species benefits at the expense of another, including predation, herbivory, and parasitism.
417
What are interspecific interactions?
Interspecific interactions are relationships between individuals of different species, which can be classified based on their effects on the species involved.
418
What are kelp forests characterized by?
Kelp forests are characterized by large kelp species that anchor to rocky substrates.
419
What are large-scale biogeographic factors?
Large-scale biogeographic factors include climate, geography, and historical events that shape species distributions.
420
What are latitudinal gradients?
Latitudinal gradients refer to the variation in species richness and diversity across different latitudes, with tropical regions exhibiting higher diversity.
421
What are pathogens in ecology?
Microorganisms that can cause diseases in host organisms, impacting community dynamics.
422
What are pioneer species in primary succession?
Pioneer species include prokaryotes, protists, lichens, and mosses that contribute to soil formation in lifeless areas.
423
What are some examples of niche differentiation?
Examples of niche differentiation include variations in feeding habits and habitat preferences among closely related species.
424
What are some examples of predators?
Predators can range from large mammals like lions to microscopic organisms like rotifers.
425
What are some examples of secondary succession?
Examples include lodgepole pine forests recovering after fire and agricultural land returning to forest.
426
What are the costs and benefits associated with mutualistic relationships?
Mutualistic relationships involve a balance of costs and benefits for sustainability.
427
What are the different trophic levels in an ecosystem?
Trophic levels include primary producers, primary consumers (herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivores), and decomposers.
428
What are the direct effects of parasitism on host populations?
Direct effects include reduced host fitness, survival, and reproductive success.
429
What are the ecological consequences of the collapse of the Atlantic cod fishery?
The collapse affected marine biodiversity, illustrating the interconnectedness of species within food webs.
430
What are the indirect effects of parasitism on host populations?
Indirect effects include changes in host behavior that can alter predator-prey dynamics.
431
What are the key types of interspecific interactions?
Key types of interspecific interactions include competition, predation, herbivory, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism.
432
What are the threats to kelp forest ecosystems?
Kelp forest ecosystems are threatened by climate change, pollution, and overfishing.
433
What are the two classifications of parasites based on their location?
Parasites can be classified as endoparasites (living inside hosts) or ectoparasites (feeding on external surfaces).
434
What can be an example of a short food chain?
In Arctic tundra, a food chain may consist of four links: willow-insects-passerines-rough-legged hawk.
435
What can happen if a keystone species is lost?
It can lead to dramatic shifts in community structure and biodiversity.
436
What case studies support the island equilibrium model?
The Galápagos Islands and research on the Hawaiian Islands illustrate the model's principles.
437
What defenses have plants evolved against herbivory?
Plants have evolved chemical toxins and physical structures like thorns.
438
What did a study in tropical Malaysia reveal about tree species?
The study revealed 711 tree species in a 6.6-hectare plot, compared to only 10-15 species in a similar area in Michigan.
439
What did Alexander von Humboldt describe in 1807?
He described the species-area curve, noting that larger areas tend to support more species due to greater habitat diversity.
440
What did G.F. Gause's experiments demonstrate?
G.F. Gause's experiments with Paramecium species demonstrated competitive exclusion, where one species outcompeted the other for food.
441
What did the Cedar Creek experiments reveal about species diversity?
Communities with more species are generally more productive and stable over time, especially during environmental stress.
442
What do food webs illustrate?
Food webs are complex networks of interconnected food chains, showing the feeding relationships among various species in a community.
443
What do short food chains indicate about an ecosystem?
They may indicate a more stable ecosystem.
444
What do the arrows in food web diagrams represent?
They indicate who eats whom, providing a visual representation of energy flow.
445
What does a linear relationship (z = 1) in the species-area curve indicate?
It indicates that doubling the area results in doubling the species count.
446
What does biodiversity encompass?
Biodiversity includes both species richness (the number of species) and relative abundance (the proportion of each species in a community).
447
What does ecological equilibrium imply about species composition?
Ecological equilibrium is dynamic; species composition can change over time due to various factors.
448
What does Eric Taylor's research on sticklebacks illustrate about resource partitioning?
It shows how resource partitioning can lead to the evolution of distinct feeding strategies in different lake environments.
449
What does the energetic hypothesis explain about food chains?
It explains why food chains are typically short, attributing this to the inefficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels.
450
What does the Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis propose?
The hypothesis posits that moderate levels of disturbance can enhance species diversity, while high or low levels may reduce it.
451
What does the island equilibrium model help predict in conservation efforts?
It aids in designing effective habitat reserves and predicting species loss due to habitat fragmentation.
452
What does the island equilibrium model propose?
The number of species on an island is determined by the balance between immigration and extinction rates.
453
What does the trophic cascade model illustrate?
The trophic cascade model illustrates how removing top predators can lead to overpopulation of herbivores and depletion of plant life.
454
What ecological role do mountain pine beetle outbreaks play?
MPB outbreaks provide food for woodpeckers and create habitats for various cavity-dwelling species, while also transitioning forests from single-aged to multi-aged.
455
What ecological shifts have occurred due to the decline of large predators?
Significant shifts, including the extirpation of wolves and extinction of species like the sabre-toothed tiger.
456
What economic consequences can result from herbivory?
Extensive damage to vegetation can lead to economic consequences for agriculture, as seen with locusts and overgrazing by geese.
457
What empirical evidence supports the species-area relationship?
Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson found that bird species richness on the Sunda Islands increased with island size.
458
What event led to the initial colonization of sticklebacks in freshwater lakes?
The fall of sea levels, which trapped these fish in isolated lakes.
459
What evolutionary factor contributes to higher species richness in tropical regions?
Tropical communities are generally older and have experienced fewer major disturbances, allowing for more speciation events.
460
What experimental approaches do ecologists use to study biodiversity?
They conduct experiments in both natural and laboratory settings to manipulate and measure biodiversity.
461
What factors can disrupt the balance of exploitative interactions?
Habitat loss, climate change, and species invasions.
462
What factors influence immigration and extinction rates on islands?
Island size and distance from the mainland.
463
What factors influence the dynamics of a biological community?
The dynamics of a biological community are influenced by biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors.
464
What happens to ecosystems when a dominant species is lost?
It can lead to varying impacts; some species may thrive while others, especially specialized ones, may go extinct.
465
What happens to pioneer species over time during primary succession?
Pioneer species are gradually replaced by grasses, shrubs, and eventually trees, leading to a stable community.
466
What happens to plant species diversity when Juncus is removed?
There is a significant decrease in plant species diversity.
467
What has been observed in the Cedar Creek Natural History Area regarding plant diversity?
Higher-diversity plots produce more biomass than single-species plots.
468
What have conservation efforts for sea otters demonstrated?
They have shown positive ecological recovery.
469
What historical example illustrates the impact of pathogens on populations?
Rinderpest in Africa demonstrated how pathogens can decimate populations and alter ecosystems.
470
What human activities are primary agents of disturbance in modern ecosystems?
Human activities such as agricultural development, logging, urban development, and mining significantly alter landscapes.
471
What impact did sudden oak death have on ecosystems?
It led to significant declines in oak populations, affecting various bird species dependent on these trees.
472
What impact did the introduction of chestnut blight have on the American chestnut?
It led to the loss of the chestnut, affecting ecosystem dynamics and causing extinction of specialized species.
473
What is a biological community?
A biological community consists of populations of different species that coexist in a specific area and interact with one another.
474
What is a case study that illustrates the impact of ectoparasites on hosts?
Ticks on moose demonstrate how ectoparasites can increase vulnerability to environmental stressors and predation.
475
What is a food chain?
A food chain illustrates the transfer of energy from primary producers (plants) to various levels of consumers (herbivores and carnivores).
476
What is a keystone species?
A species that plays a crucial role in maintaining the structure of an ecological community.
477
What is a zoonotic disease?
A disease transmitted from animals to humans, often with significant health impacts.
478
What is adaptive radiation in the context of sticklebacks?
It is the evolution of different traits in species to exploit various ecological niches.
479
What is an ecological niche?
An ecological niche encompasses the biotic and abiotic resources an organism utilizes in its environment, including habitat, food sources, and activity patterns.
480
What is an example of a parasite that requires both humans and freshwater snails as hosts?
The blood fluke.
481
What is an example of commensalism involving birds?
Cowbirds and cattle egrets feed on insects flushed out by grazing herbivores, benefiting without harming the host.
482
What is an example of obligate mutualism?
Termites and their gut microorganisms, where one species cannot survive without the other.
483
What is bottom-up control in ecosystems?
Bottom-up control refers to the influence of lower trophic levels on higher ones, primarily through resource availability, such as increased nutrient levels leading to higher plant biomass.
484
What is character displacement?
Character displacement refers to the evolutionary changes that occur in species traits due to competition for resources.
485
What is co-evolution in the context of herbivores and plants?
Co-evolution is the interaction where both herbivores and plants adapt in response to each other's strategies.
486
What is commensalism in ecology?
Commensalism is a type of ecological interaction where one species benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed.
487
What is commensalism?
Commensalism benefits one species while the other is neither helped nor harmed.
488
What is desertification and what causes it in Africa?
Desertification is the process of land degradation, exacerbated by overgrazing and agricultural practices in parts of Africa.
489
What is evapotranspiration and how does it relate to species richness?
Evapotranspiration, which is higher in tropical regions due to abundant sunlight and precipitation, correlates with higher species richness.
490
What is facilitation in ecological communities?
Facilitation refers to positive interactions that enhance the survival and reproduction of other species without direct contact.
491
What is facultative mutualism?
Facultative mutualism allows both species to survive independently, such as the acacia-ant relationship.
492
What is herbivory and its impact on ecosystems?
Herbivory involves organisms consuming plant material, significantly affecting plant community dynamics and ecosystem structure.
493
What is mutualism in ecological interactions?
Mutualism is an interspecific interaction that benefits both species involved, often leading to coevolution of adaptations.
494
What is niche differentiation?
Niche differentiation allows similar species to coexist by reducing direct competition for resources.
495
What is parasitism?
Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship where the parasite benefits at the host's expense, often causing harm to the host.
496
What is predation in ecological terms?
An interaction where predators kill and consume prey, influencing prey population dynamics.
497
What is primary succession?
Primary succession occurs in lifeless areas where soil has not yet formed, starting with colonizers like prokaryotes, lichens, and mosses.
498
What is resource partitioning?
Resource partitioning allows similar species to coexist by exploiting different aspects of the same resource.
499
What is secondary succession?
Secondary succession occurs after disturbances that leave the soil intact, such as fires or human activities, leading to a return to the original community structure.
500
What is the 'ghost of competition past' in ecology?
It suggests that historical competition shapes current species traits and interactions.
501
What is the competitive exclusion principle?
The competitive exclusion principle states that two species competing for the same resources cannot coexist indefinitely; one will outcompete the other.
502
What is the competitive superiority hypothesis?
It suggests that dominant species excel in resource exploitation.
503
What is the concept of resource capture in diverse communities?
Diverse communities utilize available resources more efficiently, limiting opportunities for invasive species.
504
What is the difference between a fundamental niche and a realized niche?
The fundamental niche is the potential range of conditions a species can occupy, while the realized niche is the actual space occupied in the presence of competitors.
505
What is the ecological significance of the black-legged tick?
It serves as a vector for Lyme disease, illustrating how ecological factors influence disease spread.
506
What is the effect of distance from the mainland on species immigration?
Islands closer to the mainland generally have higher immigration rates.
507
What is the effect of disturbances on species composition?
Disturbances can lead to shifts in species composition and diversity, as new species may establish while others are removed.
508
What is the equilibrium point of species richness influenced by?
The island's size and proximity to the mainland.
509
What is the general principle of species-area curves?
Larger areas support more species across different ecosystems.
510
What is the impact of clear-cutting on tropical rainforests?
Clear-cutting for agriculture and grazing rapidly destroys tropical rainforests.
511
What is the impact of high disturbance levels on species diversity?
High disturbance levels can lead to environmental stress that exceeds species tolerances, reducing diversity.
512
What is the impact of low disturbance levels on species diversity?
Low disturbance levels may allow dominant species to outcompete others, also reducing diversity.
513
What is the importance of understanding community interactions?
Understanding community interactions is essential for studying ecological balance and biodiversity.
514
What is the mathematical relationship of the species-area curve?
The relationship is expressed as S = cA^z, where S is the number of species, A is the area, c is a constant, and z is the exponent.
515
What is the predation avoidance hypothesis?
It explains the success of dominant species in avoiding natural enemies.
516
What is the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem services?
Maintaining diverse ecosystems is crucial for effective conservation strategies that support ecosystem services.
517
What is the relationship between disturbance and biodiversity in aquatic ecosystems?
Disturbance plays a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity, as it can create opportunities for various species to thrive.
518
What is the relationship between flooding frequency and invertebrate richness in New Zealand streams?
Optimal invertebrate richness is found in streams with intermediate flooding; very frequent or rare floods hinder species establishment or allow superior competitors to dominate.
519
What is the relationship between zoonotic diseases and public health?
The rise of zoonotic diseases emphasizes the need for integrated approaches to public health and conservation.
520
What is the role of disturbances in ecosystems?
Disturbances can be natural or anthropogenic and significantly alter community structure, leading to shifts in species composition and diversity.
521
What is the role of dominant species in a community?
They are the most abundant or have the highest biomass, significantly influencing community structure.
522
What is the role of fire in lodgepole pine forests?
Fires create gaps in the canopy, allowing lodgepole pine to rapidly colonize burned areas.
523
What is the Shannon diversity index used for?
It is used to quantitatively assess community diversity over time and space.
524
What is the significance of detritus in food webs?
It highlights the importance of dead organic matter in energy flow and nutrient cycling.
525
What is the significance of Glacier Bay in studying primary succession?
Glacier Bay serves as a key study site showcasing the stages of primary succession from pioneer species to mature forests.
526
What is the significance of studying ecological niches?
The study of niches provides insights into species interactions and community dynamics.
527
What is the significance of studying invertebrate taxa richness in relation to flooding?
It highlights the balance between disturbance and species diversity in aquatic ecosystems.
528
What is top-down control in ecosystems?
Top-down control emphasizes the role of predators in regulating herbivore populations, which in turn affects plant communities.
529
What morphological differences evolved between early and late colonizers of sticklebacks?
Early colonizers evolved into deep-bodied benthic specialists, while later colonizers remained streamlined for limnetic feeding.
530
What percentage of energy is typically transferred from one trophic level to the next?
About 10%.
531
What role do adaptations play in the relationship between predators and prey?
Adaptations such as camouflage and mimicry illustrate the evolutionary arms race between these groups.
532
What role do functional groups play in food webs?
They help ecologists understand community structure by illustrating interactions between herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.
533
What role do kelp forests play in marine ecosystems?
Kelp forests provide habitat and food for a diverse range of marine species, including lobsters, crabs, and various fish.
534
What role do mutualistic relationships play in ecosystems?
Mutualistic relationships can lead to increased biodiversity and ecosystem resilience.
535
What role do sea otters play in their ecosystem?
They control sea urchin populations, which protects kelp forests vital for many marine species.
536
What role do vectors play in the spread of pathogens?
Vectors are organisms that carry and transmit diseases.
537
What types of herbivores are important in ecosystems?
While large herbivores are well-known, many invertebrate herbivores also play crucial roles.
538
What types of species initiate secondary succession?
Herbaceous species are the first to establish during secondary succession.
539
What was the outcome of experiments manipulating leaf litter in tree holes?
Increased food supply at the producer level supported longer food chains, confirming the energetic hypothesis.
540
What were the consequences of historical overhunting of sea otters?
It led to unchecked sea urchin populations and the collapse of kelp forests.
541
When did marine sticklebacks first colonize freshwater lakes?
Approximately 10,000 to 12,000 years ago, following the last Ice Age.
542
Who first noted the trend of latitudinal gradients?
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace first noted the trend in the 1850s.
543
Why are exploitative interactions important for ecological dynamics?
They influence population sizes and community structure.
544
Why are kelp forests considered vital for coastal ecosystems?
Kelp forests are vital for coastal ecosystems as they provide nursery habitats and contribute to nutrient cycling.
545
Why is biodiversity important for ecosystem health?
It helps in assessing ecosystem health and resilience, leading to increased productivity and stability.
546
Why is identifying animal reservoirs important for zoonotic diseases?
It is crucial for understanding and controlling the spread of these diseases.
547
Why is the study of dominant species removal important?
It helps ecologists understand community dynamics and resilience.
548
Why is trophic structure important?
It is essential for understanding community dynamics and energy transfer within ecosystems.
549
Why is understanding biogeographic factors important for conservation?
Understanding these factors is crucial for predicting ecological responses to disturbances and for effective conservation efforts.
550
Why is understanding character displacement important?
It is essential for studying evolutionary processes and community ecology.
551
Why is understanding community composition important?
It is vital for ecological research and environmental management.
552
Why is understanding food chain length important?
It helps predict community responses to environmental changes and disturbances.
553
Why is understanding parasitism important in ecology?
Understanding parasitism is crucial for insights into biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, and wildlife management.
554
Why is understanding the species-area relationship important for conservation biology?
It helps predict the impact of habitat loss on biodiversity.
555
Can you name examples of ecosystem engineers?
Humans, beavers, and corals are prominent examples of ecosystem engineers.
556
How do beavers act as ecosystem engineers?
Beavers create aquatic habitats by damming streams, which alters the surrounding terrestrial ecosystem.
557
How do detritivores contribute to ecosystem functioning?
Detritivores break down organic matter and recycle nutrients back to primary producers.
558
How do ecosystems vary in size?
Ecosystems can vary from large areas like forests and lakes to small microcosms like a fallen log or a desert spring.
559
How do nitrogen isotopes benefit ecosystems?
Salmon tissues contain high levels of nitrogen isotopes, which are assimilated by predators like bears, further enriching the ecosystem.
560
How do salmon contribute to nutrient cycling in ecosystems?
Salmon transport marine nutrients to freshwater environments and enrich the soil with nitrogen after spawning.
561
What are autotrophs and heterotrophs?
Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own energy (like plants), while heterotrophs are organisms that consume other organisms for energy.
562
What are conservation strategies to mitigate human impact?
Strategies include habitat restoration, sustainable resource management, and pollution control.
563
What are ecosystem engineers?
Ecosystem engineers are organisms that significantly modify their environment, creating or maintaining habitats for other species.
564
What are some examples of human impacts on ecosystems?
Examples include deforestation, pollution, and agricultural practices that alter natural cycles and reduce biodiversity.
565
What are the key components of ecosystems?
Key components include biotic factors (living organisms) and abiotic factors (non-living elements like soil, water, and climate).
566
What are trophic levels in an ecosystem?
Trophic levels include primary producers (autotrophs), primary consumers (herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivores that eat herbivores), and tertiary consumers (carnivores that eat other carnivores).
567
What did Tom Reimchen's research highlight about salmon?
His research highlights the significance of salmon-derived nitrogen in surrounding plant life.
568
What does the second law of thermodynamics indicate about energy conversions?
The second law indicates that energy conversions are inefficient, with energy lost as heat, impacting ecosystem sustainability.
569
What happens to salmon after they spawn?
After spawning, salmon die, and their bodies decompose, enriching the soil with nitrogen, crucial for plant growth.
570
What is an ecosystem?
An ecosystem comprises all organisms in a specific area and their physical environment, interacting as a unit.
571
What is the 10% rule in energy transfer?
The 10% rule states that only about 10% of energy is passed on to the next trophic level.
572
What is the first law of thermodynamics in relation to ecosystems?
The first law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed or transferred.
573
What is the impact of human activities on ecosystems?
Human activities can disrupt energy flow and chemical cycling, leading to ecosystem degradation.
574
What is the law of conservation of mass?
The law states that matter cannot be created or destroyed, which is crucial for understanding ecosystem dynamics.
575
What is the primary source of energy in ecosystems?
Energy enters ecosystems primarily through sunlight, which is converted into chemical energy by autotrophs.
576
What role do coral reefs play in ecosystems?
Coral reefs provide essential shelter and resources for diverse marine life, showcasing the importance of structural habitat creation.
577
Why is education important in conservation efforts?
Education and awareness are key components in promoting sustainable practices and protecting ecosystems.
578
How are global cycles influenced compared to local cycles?
Global cycles are influenced by atmospheric processes, while local cycles depend more on soil and water interactions.
579
How can NEP be estimated?
NEP can be estimated by measuring the net flux of carbon dioxide entering or leaving an ecosystem.
580
How can NPP be measured?
NPP can be measured in energy per unit area per time or as biomass added per unit area per time.
581
How can understanding dietary impacts guide sustainable practices?
It can inform policies for resource management and sustainable agriculture.
582
How did deforestation affect nitrate concentration in the creek?
The concentration of nitrate increased 60-fold post-deforestation.
583
How do consumers obtain energy in an ecosystem?
Consumers obtain energy by consuming primary producers or other consumers, illustrating energy transfer through food webs.
584
How do dietary choices influence Earth's human carrying capacity?
They impact nutrient demand and ecosystem health.
585
How do ecosystems function as carbon sinks or sources?
A carbon sink absorbs more carbon than it releases, while a carbon source releases more carbon than it absorbs.
586
How do prescribed burns contribute to restoration efforts?
They mimic natural disturbances, aiding native plant competition against invasive species.
587
How do restoration projects often support plant growth in nutrient-poor soils?
By incorporating mycorrhizal fungi.
588
How do root hairs and specialized anatomical features affect nutrient absorption in plants?
They increase the surface area for nutrient absorption, enhancing plant growth.
589
How do upwelling regions impact fisheries?
They support economically important fisheries due to the abundance of phytoplankton, which form the base of marine food webs.
590
How does annual precipitation relate to net primary productivity (NPP)?
Wetter ecosystems generally support higher productivity, illustrating a relationship between NPP and annual precipitation.
591
How does climate change impact terrestrial net primary production (NPP)?
It influences NPP through alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns.
592
How does decomposition in temperate forests differ from that in tropical rainforests?
Temperate forests have slower decomposition, allowing for higher organic material retention in soil.
593
How does decomposition rate vary across different ecosystems?
Decomposition rates vary significantly based on temperature, moisture, and nutrient availability.
594
How does solar energy intensity vary across the Earth?
Solar energy intensity varies by latitude, with the tropics receiving the most, affecting local ecosystems' productivity.
595
How does the loss of vegetation affect water dynamics?
It results in diminished water absorption and transpiration, exacerbating runoff issues.
596
How does windblown dust contribute to nutrient availability in oceanic regions?
Windblown dust is a primary source of iron for oceanic regions, particularly those distant from land.
597
How much solar energy does Earth receive daily?
Approximately 174 petajoules, enough to meet human energy needs for 17 years at 2018 consumption levels.
598
In severe restoration cases, what may precede biological restoration?
Physical restoration, such as reconstructing stream channels.
599
Name some major upwelling regions that support high primary production.
The Southern Ocean, equatorial regions, and coastal areas like Peru and California.
600
On average, how does NPP compare to GPP?
NPP is about half of GPP, indicating significant energy loss through respiration.
601
Provide an example of bioremediation involving a lichen species.
A lichen in the UK that concentrates uranium, serving as both a monitor and remediator.
602
What actions were taken to restore Grasslands National Park?
Native grasses were seeded, cattle were removed, and bison were introduced.
603
What adaptations have plants evolved to enhance nutrient uptake?
Plants have evolved various adaptations to enhance nutrient uptake, particularly for limiting nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus.
604
What are biogeochemical cycles?
They involve the recycling of essential chemical elements through biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems.
605
What are the ecological concerns associated with large-scale ocean fertilization experiments?
Concerns include the ecological impacts and the fact that carbon produced often recycles back into the atmosphere instead of sinking into deep ocean waters.
606
What are the effects of hotter droughts on ecosystems in the American southwest?
They have exacerbated wildfires and insect outbreaks, leading to increased tree mortality.
607
What are the implications of ecosystems transitioning from carbon sinks to sources?
It can exacerbate climate change and accelerate global warming.
608
What are the practical applications of understanding nutrient dynamics in agriculture?
It allows for optimized fertilizer use to maximize crop yields and reduce costs for farmers while minimizing environmental impacts.
609
What are the two main categories of biogeochemical cycles?
Global cycles (e.g., carbon, nitrogen) and local cycles (e.g., phosphorus, potassium).
610
What are upwelling regions and their significance in nutrient cycling?
Upwelling regions are where nutrient-rich waters rise, supporting diverse marine ecosystems.
611
What are upwelling zones and their significance to primary production?
Upwelling zones are areas where nutrient-rich waters rise to the surface, characterized by high primary production and biodiversity.
612
What assumption do restoration ecologists operate under regarding environmental damage?
That environmental damage is partially reversible, but there are limits to ecosystem resilience.
613
What conditions can hinder decomposition?
Extreme dryness or wetness can hinder decomposition, leading to organic matter accumulation, as seen in peatlands.
614
What demonstrates the success of restoration efforts in Grasslands National Park?
The recovery of prairie species, including black-footed ferrets.
615
What did research by Erin Bertrand reveal about phytoplankton growth?
Nitrogen alone does not stimulate phytoplankton growth; combining nitrogen with iron leads to significant chlorophyll synthesis and diatom proliferation.
616
What does Grasslands National Park exemplify in restoration ecology?
Adaptive management in restoration ecology.
617
What does NEP indicate about an ecosystem?
NEP indicates whether an ecosystem is gaining or losing carbon over time, crucial for understanding carbon cycling and climate change impacts.
618
What does the Hubbard Brook study emphasize regarding vegetation?
The importance of vegetation in controlling nutrient dynamics.
619
What does the research at Hubbard Brook contribute to ecological understanding?
It informs practices for sustainable forest management and broader ecological health.
620
What drives the carbon cycle?
Biological processes like photosynthesis and respiration.
621
What ecological issue can arise from excess nutrient runoff due to deforestation?
Algal blooms, leading to ecological imbalances.
622
What effect does climate change have on carbon dynamics in ecosystems?
It can shift ecosystems from being carbon sinks to carbon sources, increasing CO2 emissions.
623
What example illustrates the shift of arctic ecosystems from carbon sinks to sources?
Arctic ecosystems that previously absorbed carbon now release more CO2 than they sequester.
624
What factors limit primary production in aquatic ecosystems?
Nutrient availability, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, often limits primary production more than light.
625
What happens to detritus in aquatic ecosystems?
Detritus sinks to the bottom, where decomposition occurs, transferring carbon to deeper waters.
626
What has been the focus of research at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest since 1963?
Studying nutrient cycling in a deciduous forest ecosystem.
627
What has happened to NPP since 2000, and what does this indicate?
Subsequent droughts have reversed gains in NPP, highlighting ecosystem vulnerability to climate variability.
628
What highlights the interconnectedness of ecosystems and human activity?
The relationship between food webs and nutrient transfer.
629
What historical examples highlight the impact of human activities on freshwater ecosystems?
Historical cases of eutrophication in the 1970s.
630
What implications do the findings from Hubbard Brook have for forest management?
They emphasize the importance of maintaining nutrient balance for sustainable forest management.
631
What influences the water cycle?
Physical processes such as evaporation.
632
What is a common approach in global restoration initiatives?
Adaptive management, allowing ecologists to experiment with various strategies.
633
What is a major consequence of deforestation on ecosystems?
Increased water and mineral runoff, disrupting nutrient cycles.
634
What is a primary example of nutrient limitation in the ocean?
The Sargasso Sea, where low phytoplankton density is attributed to low nitrogen, phosphorus, and critical micronutrient iron.
635
What is biological augmentation?
Adding essential materials to degraded ecosystems, such as nitrogen-fixing plants to enhance soil fertility.
636
What is bioremediation?
Using organisms to detoxify polluted ecosystems.
637
What is eutrophication, and what causes it?
Eutrophication is an ecological disruption caused by excessive nutrient input in freshwater systems, leading to algal blooms.
638
What is Gross Primary Production (GPP)?
GPP is the total energy captured by photosynthesis in a given time.
639
What is net ecosystem production (NEP) and why is it important?
NEP assesses the carbon storage capacity of ecosystems.
640
What is Net Ecosystem Production (NEP)?
NEP is defined as GPP minus total respiration from all organisms, providing insight into carbon dynamics in ecosystems.
641
What is Net Primary Production (NPP) and why is it important?
NPP is GPP minus energy used in autotrophic respiration, crucial for understanding energy availability for consumers and representing energy stored in biomass.
642
What is the difference between standing crop and NPP?
Standing crop refers to the total biomass present, while NPP reflects new biomass added over time.
643
What is the impact of rapid decomposition in tropical rainforests?
It leads to low organic material accumulation, with most nutrients stored in tree trunks rather than soil.
644
What is the importance of light penetration in aquatic ecosystems?
Light penetration is crucial for photosynthesis, with about half of solar radiation absorbed in the first 15 meters of water.
645
What is the long-term objective of restoration ecology?
To return ecosystems to their pre-disturbance states, requiring ongoing commitment and resources.
646
What is the primary goal of restoration ecologists?
To return degraded ecosystems to a more natural state, often through ecological succession.
647
What is the role of agriculture in nutrient depletion and soil health?
It is critical for future food security.
648
What is the significance of calcium loss in the Hubbard Brook ecosystem?
Calcium loss is minimal, suggesting that chemical decomposition of bedrock replenishes nutrients.
649
What is the significance of changes in NEP for conservation strategies?
Changes in NEP can inform conservation strategies and climate change mitigation efforts.
650
What is the significance of the Hubbard Brook study in relation to land-use changes?
It serves as a case for understanding the broader implications of land-use changes on ecosystem health.
651
What is the significance of the photic zone in relation to primary production?
The depth of the photic zone significantly influences primary production, as only a small percentage of light reaches deeper waters.
652
What is the significance of the shift from carbon sink to carbon source in ecosystems?
It affects global carbon cycles and climate change mitigation efforts.
653
What limits the energy budget in an ecosystem?
The total photosynthetic production sets the energy budget limit, influencing all trophic levels.
654
What methodology was used in the Hubbard Brook study?
Researchers measured the input and outflow of key nutrients to establish a mineral budget.
655
What methods are used to study nutrient movement in ecosystems?
Isotope tracing methods, both nonradioactive and radioactive.
656
What must restoration efforts balance?
Ecological integrity with practical constraints like time and funding.
657
What must restoration efforts consider for effective recovery?
The historical context of land use.
658
What percentage of solar radiation reaches the surface for photosynthesis?
Only a small percentage, with about 1% of the visible light that reaches photosynthetic organisms being converted into chemical energy.
659
What percentage of water added to the Hubbard Brook ecosystem exits through streams?
Approximately 60%.
660
What primary factors influence terrestrial primary production?
Temperature and moisture are the primary factors affecting primary production across terrestrial ecosystems.
661
What recent findings have emerged regarding NEP in ocean regions?
Recent marine research has shown unexpectedly high NEP in nutrient-poor ocean regions, prompting reevaluation of ocean productivity estimates.
662
What risks does increasing ocean acidification pose?
It poses risks to marine life.
663
What role do decomposers play in ecosystems?
Decomposers recycle nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
664
What role do nitrogen-fixing bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi play in plant growth?
They form symbiotic relationships that are crucial for nutrient acquisition.
665
What role do primary producers play in an ecosystem?
They convert solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis, forming the base of the food web.
666
What role do wildlife and habitat corridors play in restoration?
They enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services in restored areas.
667
What role does iron play in primary production in the Sargasso Sea?
Iron is a critical micronutrient that limits primary production despite low concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus.
668
What soil nutrients are critical in limiting plant growth in terrestrial ecosystems?
Nitrogen and phosphorus are critical soil nutrients that limit plant growth.
669
What strategies do restoration ecologists use to enhance restoration?
Identifying limiting factors for recovery and manipulating ecological processes.
670
What types of climates show moderate levels of primary production?
Intermediate climates, such as temperate forests and grasslands.
671
What was observed regarding nitrogen in the Hubbard Brook study?
The forest often registers small net gains of nitrogen, indicating a dynamic nutrient cycling process.
672
What was the impact of experimental deforestation on water runoff at Hubbard Brook?
Water runoff increased by 30-40% due to the absence of plants.
673
What was the observed change in NPP from 1982 to 1999, particularly in the Amazon?
There was a 6% increase in NPP due to decreased cloud cover and increased solar energy.
674
Where are phosphorus limitations prevalent in terrestrial ecosystems?
Phosphorus limitations are prevalent in older soils and arid regions.
675
Which ecosystems are among the most productive in terms of NPP?
Tropical rainforests are among the most productive, while oceans are less productive per unit area.
676
Which ecosystems are considered the most productive, and why?
Tropical rainforests are the most productive due to their warm and wet conditions.
677
Why is collaboration important in restoration efforts?
It is crucial for effective restoration efforts among scientists, policymakers, and local communities.
678
Why is energy transfer in ecosystems considered inefficient?
Only a small fraction of energy is passed from one trophic level to the next, leading to energy loss at each stage.
679
Why is knowledge of limiting nutrients essential for global food production?
It is crucial for sustaining food production and ensuring efficient resource use.
680
Why is long-term monitoring important in restoration ecology?
To assess the recovery of ecosystems post-deforestation.
681
Why is monitoring carbon fluxes in ecosystems important?
It helps predict future climate scenarios.
682
Why is nitrogen often considered the limiting factor in marine environments?
Experiments have shown that nitrogen is frequently the limiting nutrient that must be added to increase primary production.
683
Why is nutrient retention important in forest ecosystems?
It is crucial for ecosystem productivity and preventing issues like algal blooms from nutrient runoff.
684
Why is the ocean's ability to absorb carbon dioxide important?
It regulates atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.
685
Why is understanding NEP important for climate change?
It is vital for assessing ecosystems' roles in carbon sequestration and their responses to global warming.
686
Why might grasslands have higher NPP than forests?
Grasslands may have higher NPP due to rapid consumption and shorter life spans of plants.
687
What is the current status of the North Atlantic right whale population as of May 2018?
The population is critically endangered, with a notable decline in birth rates and an increase in death rates.
688
How many calves were born to North Atlantic right whales in 2017?
Only five calves were born.
689
What significant reproductive issue is affecting female North Atlantic right whales?
The average lifespan has decreased from 70 years to approximately 30 years, and the interval between successful births has increased from three years to seven years.
690
What was the population decrease of North Atlantic right whales from 2010 to 2015?
The population decreased from 482 to 458 whales.
691
What was the mortality rate of North Atlantic right whales in 2017?
The mortality rate was 4%.
692
What are the primary human activities contributing to the decline of North Atlantic right whales?
Ship collisions and fishing gear entanglements.
693
What measures has the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans implemented to protect North Atlantic right whales?
Closing lobster fishing in certain areas and adjusting the snow crab fishery schedule.
694
What speed limit has been enforced to reduce collisions with North Atlantic right whales?
A 10-knot speed limit.
695
What are the three main levels of biodiversity?
Genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity.
696
What does genetic diversity refer to?
The variation within and between populations, essential for adaptation and survival.
697
What percentage of bird and mammal species are threatened with extinction according to the IUCN?
12% of bird species and 21% of mammal species.
698
What is the term for local extinctions that occur while species survive in other regions?
Extirpations.
699
What organization assesses species status in Canada and recommends protections under the Species at Risk Act?
COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada).
700
What is ecosystem diversity?
The variety of ecosystems within the biosphere, crucial for sustaining ecological processes and services.
701
What has disrupted many ecosystems, leading to declines in biodiversity?
Human activities.
702
What criteria has the IUCN developed for assessing ecosystem status?
A Red List for ecosystems threatened by human activity, with categories including collapsed, critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable.
703
What is the status of Caribbean coral reef ecosystems?
They are critically endangered, with major declines in coral abundance over the past 50 years.
704
What has caused the shift from coral dominance to algal dominance in coral reefs?
Overharvesting of herbivorous fish and disease affecting key species.
705
What are the four main categories of biodiversity?
Collapsed (equivalent to extinct), critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable species.
706
What is the significance of protecting coral reefs?
It is essential for maintaining marine biodiversity and ecosystem services.
707
What ecological models predict about the North Atlantic right whale species without intervention?
The species could face extinction within 20 years.
708
What ongoing research is needed for North Atlantic right whales?
Research to understand the drastic changes in birth rates and to develop effective conservation strategies.
709
What is the primary aim of ecosystem classification?
To identify ecosystems at risk of losing species and ecological functions, focusing on distribution decline, environmental degradation, and biotic interactions.
710
Why are Caribbean coral reef ecosystems classified as endangered?
Due to significant declines in coral abundance over the past 50 years, with large fleshy algae dominating the reefs.
711
What are the major threats to coral reefs?
Loss of herbivores, overharvesting of large fish, coral diseases, pollution, and climate change.
712
What percentage of the original distribution of raised bog ecosystems in Germany remains?
Only 2% remains due to peat mining and agricultural drainage.
713
How is the Aral Sea ecosystem assessed?
As collapsed, due to water extraction for irrigation leading to fragmentation and salinization, resulting in biodiversity loss.
714
What concept by E. O. Wilson emphasizes our connection to nature?
Biophilia.
715
What moral argument for conservation is supported by many religions?
The view that other species are entitled to life.
716
What does G. H. Brundtland emphasize regarding future generations?
The importance of stewardship of the planet for our children.
717
What practical benefits does biodiversity provide?
Potential food sources, fibers, and medicines.
718
Why is genetic diversity vital for agricultural resilience?
It allows for the discovery of disease-resistant traits, which can improve crops.
719
What are ecosystem services?
Processes through which natural ecosystems sustain human life, including air and water purification, waste detoxification, and flood mitigation.
720
What was the estimated value of Earth's ecosystem services in 1997?
$33 trillion per year, nearly double the global GDP at that time.
721
What economic benefit did New York City gain from restoring natural habitats?
The city saved $8 billion by restoring natural habitats for water purification.
722
What is the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning?
Reducing biodiversity diminishes the capacity of ecosystems to provide essential services.
723
What is the greatest threat to biodiversity?
Habitat loss, driven by agriculture, urban development, forestry, mining, and pollution.
724
What percentage of species extinction or endangerment is attributed to habitat destruction according to the IUCN?
0.73
725
What has happened to tropical dry forests in Central America and Mexico?
98% of their area has been deforested.
726
How much habitat loss has agriculture caused in Canada?
97% of prairie grasslands and 88% of mixed woodlands have been converted to human use.
727
What increases extinction risk in fragmented habitats?
Smaller population sizes and altered environmental conditions.
728
What aquatic ecosystem is particularly threatened by habitat loss?
Coral reefs, which are critical for marine fish species.
729
What are introduced species?
Non-native species moved by humans to new geographic regions, either intentionally or accidentally.
730
How do introduced species affect local ecosystems?
They can disrupt ecosystems by outcompeting native species and altering community dynamics.
731
What is an example of an introduced species that has caused significant ecological impacts?
The zebra mussel in North America.
732
What are introduced species?
Organisms moved by humans from their native habitats to new geographic regions, either intentionally or accidentally.
733
What factors have accelerated the movement of introduced species?
Human travel, particularly through shipping and air transport.
734
Why do introduced species often thrive in new environments?
Due to the absence of natural predators, parasites, and pathogens that would normally control their populations.
735
What impact did the brown tree snake have on Guam?
It led to the extinction of 12 bird species and 6 lizard species due to predation.
736
How did the sea lamprey affect the Great Lakes ecosystem?
It caused a dramatic decline in native fish populations, such as lake trout, which fell from 2.5 million kg in 1946 to less than 200 kg in 1953.
737
What are zebra mussels known for?
Forming dense colonies that displace native species and clog water intake structures, causing billions of dollars in damage.
738
What is the ecological impact of introduced species?
They can disrupt local ecosystems by preying on or outcompeting native species for resources, leading to significant biodiversity loss.
739
Why are islands particularly vulnerable to introduced species?
Many extinctions on islands are attributed to non-native predators like rats and feral cats.
740
What does overharvesting refer to?
The unsustainable extraction of wild organisms, leading to population declines that exceed their ability to recover.
741
Which species are especially susceptible to overharvesting?
Species with limited habitats, such as those on islands, and large animals with low reproductive rates, like elephants and rhinoceroses.
742
What historical example illustrates the impact of overharvesting on the great auk?
The great auk went extinct by the 1840s due to human demand for its feathers, eggs, and meat.
743
How did poaching affect the elephant population in Tsavo National Park?
The population dropped from 35,000 in 1967 to under 6,000 by 1988 due to rampant poaching.
744
What has been the effect of overfishing on fish populations?
Overfishing has decimated populations previously thought to be inexhaustible, with long recovery times.
745
What is global change?
Alterations in ecological systems, atmospheric chemistry, and climate that threaten the sustainability of life on Earth.
746
What are critical components of global change?
Climate change and ozone depletion.
747
What conservation strategies are being researched to protect threatened populations?
Habitat restoration, legal protections, and the establishment of wildlife reserves.
748
What is the small-population approach in conservation biology?
It focuses on understanding processes that lead to extinction in populations that have been reduced to small sizes.
749
What is the extinction vortex?
A downward spiral toward extinction caused by inbreeding and genetic drift in small populations.
750
What long-term impacts have been observed in eastern Canadian cod populations?
Little sign of recovery over 20 years after a fishing moratorium.
751
What is the significance of understanding species interactions in conservation?
It is crucial for developing effective conservation strategies.
752
How can global change affect species distributions?
It can lead to shifts in species distributions, ecosystem functions, and overall biodiversity.
753
What role do natural predators play in controlling introduced species populations?
They typically help regulate populations, which is often absent in new environments for introduced species.
754
Why is it important to manage introduced species?
To protect native biodiversity and maintain ecosystem balance.
755
What is inbreeding and its consequence on fitness?
Inbreeding can lead to reduced fitness due to the increased likelihood of harmful recessive traits being expressed in offspring.
756
What case study illustrates the impact of genetic diversity on population viability?
The Greater Prairie Chicken case study shows how a population declined due to low genetic diversity and habitat loss, but rebounded after translocating birds from larger populations.
757
What is the Minimum Viable Population (MVP)?
The MVP is the smallest population size at which a species can sustain its numbers over time.
758
Why is the Minimum Viable Population (MVP) important for conservation biologists?
MVP helps determine the viability of species and their populations, guiding conservation efforts.
759
What factors influence the estimation of Minimum Viable Population (MVP)?
Factors include reproductive rates, habitat requirements, ecological roles, and environmental conditions.
760
How do smaller populations relate to extinction risk?
Smaller populations face higher risks of extinction due to natural catastrophes, emphasizing the need for a minimum size for survival.
761
What did Mark Shaffer's 1978 study on Yellowstone grizzly bears reveal about MVP?
Shaffer's models indicated that a population of 70-90 bears had a 95% chance of surviving for 100 years, while 100 bears could survive for 200 years.
762
What is the current estimate of grizzly bears in the Yellowstone ecosystem and its effective population size?
Current estimates show over 500 grizzly bears, but the effective population size is only about 125 due to breeding dynamics.
763
What is Effective Population Size (Ne)?
Ne is a measure of the breeding potential of a population, reflecting the number of individuals contributing genes to the next generation.
764
How does the sex ratio affect Effective Population Size (Ne)?
Unequal sex ratios can significantly reduce Ne compared to total population size.
765
What factors can influence Effective Population Size (Ne)?
Life history traits, gene flow between populations, population fluctuations, and environmental changes.
766
Why is maintaining Ne above MVP crucial for conservation?
Maintaining Ne above MVP ensures genetic diversity and adaptability to environmental changes.
767
What role does genetic diversity play in population viability?
Genetic diversity is critical; populations with low genetic variation are more susceptible to extinction.
768
What is the significance of immigration in conservation efforts?
Immigration enhances genetic diversity and reduces extinction risks in populations.
769
How do environmental factors impact MVP estimation?
Year-to-year variations in environmental factors, such as temperature and food availability, significantly impact mortality rates and population dynamics.
770
What is the relationship between effective population size (Ne) and breeding success?
The effective population size (Ne) is often less than the total population size due to breeding success and sex ratios.
771
What conservation strategies are aimed at maintaining viable populations?
Conservation strategies focus on maintaining populations above MVP to ensure genetic diversity and adaptability.
772
What is the formula for estimating Effective Population Size (Ne)?
The formula for Ne incorporates the number of breeding males and females, reflecting successful reproduction.
773
What is the impact of gene flow on Effective Population Size (Ne)?
Gene flow between populations can enhance genetic diversity and increase Ne.
774
What is the consequence of population fluctuations on Ne?
Population fluctuations can impact Ne, necessitating ongoing monitoring and management.
775
What is the goal of conservation programs regarding reproductive individuals?
Conservation programs aim to sustain total population sizes that include a minimum number of reproductively active individuals.
776
What does the Declining-Population Approach focus on?
Populations experiencing a downward trend, regardless of their size relative to MVP.
777
Why is the distinction between declining and small populations important?
It helps prioritize conservation efforts and interventions.
778
What are some root causes of population decline that conservation strategies must address?
Habitat loss and invasive species.
779
What is the first step in analyzing declining populations?
Confirm historical population data to establish past distribution and abundance.
780
What should be studied to identify potential causes of population decline?
The natural history and environmental needs of the species.
781
What is a crucial part of developing management strategies for declining populations?
Implementing strategies based on findings, such as removing invasive species or restoring habitats.
782
What is the status of the rufa red knot?
It is a migratory shorebird that has experienced significant population declines, leading to its endangered status.
783
What significant change was observed in the population of rufa red knots?
Population counts in feeding grounds declined from 50,000 to fewer than 10,000 individuals.
784
What were the three hypotheses proposed to explain the decline of the red knot population?
Mortality during nesting in Arctic Canada, increased mortality on southern feeding grounds, and habitat loss or degradation during migration.
785
What critical feeding site do red knots rely on before migrating to their breeding grounds?
Delaware Bay.
786
What impact did the decline in horseshoe crab egg abundance have on red knots?
It led to insufficient fat reserves for red knots before migration, increasing their annual mortality rate.
787
How much did the annual mortality rate for red knots increase?
From 15% to over 40%.
788
What was the effect of horseshoe crab fisheries on red knot populations?
Heavy fishing decimated horseshoe crab populations, subsequently affecting red knots.
789
Why is the recovery of horseshoe crab populations slow?
They take 10-12 years to mature.
790
What ethical dilemma does conservation biology often face?
Balancing species needs with economic opportunities, such as habitat conservation versus local economic impacts.
791
What role do keystone species play in ecosystems?
They play significant roles in maintaining biodiversity.
792
Why is identifying keystone species crucial for conservation?
Sustaining populations of keystone species ensures the health of entire communities and ecosystems.
793
How does landscape structure influence biodiversity?
The structure significantly influences biodiversity as many species utilize multiple ecosystems and their edges.
794
Why is understanding landscape structure important for conservation strategies?
It is essential for effective conservation strategies, particularly in fragmented habitats.
795
What are edge habitats and how do they affect biodiversity?
Edge habitats can support certain species, like edge-adapted species, while reducing overall biodiversity.
796
What negative impacts does fragmentation have on ecosystems?
Fragmentation alters ecosystems, creating edges that can benefit some species while harming others, leading to biodiversity loss.
797
What project documented the negative impacts of fragmentation in the Amazon?
The Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project.
798
Which species are particularly vulnerable in fragmented landscapes?
Species adapted to interior habitats.
799
What is the role of movement corridors in fragmented habitats?
They connect fragmented habitats, promote biodiversity, and reduce inbreeding.
800
What are examples of natural and artificial corridors?
Natural corridors include riparian zones, while artificial corridors include wildlife overpasses.
801
What potential issue can corridors create for wildlife?
They can facilitate the spread of diseases.
802
What percentage of the world's land is designated as protected areas?
Approximately 7%.
803
What percentage of land does Canada protect?
Nearly 10%.
804
What complex decisions are involved in establishing protected areas?
Decisions about management practices, such as fire control and predator removal.
805
What must be considered in the design and placement of reserves?
Both ecological integrity and the needs of threatened species.
806
What challenges do conservation biologists face in reserve management?
Balancing natural processes with human interventions.
807
What is the ongoing debate regarding natural disturbances in protected areas?
Whether to allow natural disturbances, like wildfires, or to actively manage them.
808
What is active management in the context of nature reserves?
It may involve removing invasive species or controlling fire risks.
809
What is passive management in nature reserves?
It allows ecosystems to self-regulate.
810
What are biodiversity hot spots?
Regions with a high number of endemic species and significant levels of threatened species, covering only a small fraction of Earth's surface.
811
What percentage of bird species inhabit biodiversity hot spots?
Approximately 30%.
812
What is a significant challenge in identifying biodiversity hot spots?
The complexity due to varying taxonomic group distributions.
813
What global changes threaten biodiversity hot spots?
Climate shifts, which can lead to species extinctions.
814
What historical perspective has changed regarding nature reserves?
The traditional view of nature reserves as unchanging ecosystems has been challenged.
815
Why have historical policies aimed at preserving ecosystems in a static state often failed?
They do not account for natural disturbances like fires.
816
What is the concept of minimum viable populations in reserve management?
It has led to a reevaluation of reserve sizes, with many reserves deemed too small for long-term species survival.
817
What is the habitat requirement for the Yellowstone grizzly bear population?
A habitat significantly larger than existing national parks.
818
What must conservation strategies consider to enhance biodiversity and connectivity?
Surrounding lands.
819
What are the advantages of large reserves in conservation?
They can support wide-ranging species and have smaller edge effects, benefiting biodiversity.
820
What are the potential drawbacks of small reserves?
They may isolate populations and reduce genetic diversity.
821
What do conservation biologists advocate for based on the needs of endangered species?
Larger reserves.
822
What is essential for effective conservation strategies?
The integration of private and public lands.
823
What must the design of reserves consider to facilitate species movement?
Ecological corridors.
824
What is the purpose of zoned reserves?
To combine protected areas with surrounding lands used for human activities, balancing conservation and economic needs.
825
Which country is a leading example of zoned reserves?
Costa Rica.
826
What do buffer zones around protected areas help mitigate?
Human impacts.
827
What challenges do buffer zones face?
Deforestation threatening the integrity of national parks.
828
What are Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) established to do?
Protect marine ecosystems from human exploitation while allowing sustainable resource use.
829
What is an example of a network of MPAs in Canada?
The Endeavour Hydrothermal Vents and the Hecate Strait Glass Sponge Reefs.
830
How are MPAs often divided?
Into management zones to balance conservation with economic activities.
831
What is the central zone of an MPA characterized by?
High restrictions on human activities.
832
What are the five major types of environmental change?
Acid precipitation, nutrient enrichment, bioaccumulation of toxins, climate change, and ozone depletion.
833
What does acid precipitation refer to?
Any form of precipitation with a pH less than 5.2.
834
What primarily causes acid precipitation?
The release of sulfur and nitrogen oxides from burning fossil fuels and wood.
835
What ecological impacts does acid precipitation have?
It harms aquatic and terrestrial organisms, particularly in sensitive ecosystems.
836
When was acid precipitation first recognized as a significant environmental issue?
In the 1960s.
837
What is necessary to assess the effectiveness of MPAs in conserving marine biodiversity?
Ongoing research and monitoring.
838
What do conservation efforts need to address to protect habitats and species effectively?
Large-scale environmental changes caused by human activities.
839
What is required for collaborative global strategies to mitigate human impacts?
Promoting sustainable practices.
840
What led to the death of lake-dwelling organisms in eastern Canada, particularly in Nova Scotia?
Air pollution from factories, notably resulting in Atlantic salmon populations being extirpated from 14 rivers with pH levels below 4.7.
841
What regions experienced fish population declines due to pollution from Great Britain and central Europe?
Southern Norway and Sweden.
842
What has been the percentage decrease in sulfur dioxide emissions in North America since the 1970s?
Over 67%.
843
What evidence suggests recovery of affected ecosystems after emission reductions?
Clearwater Lake in Ontario showed improved pH levels and fish reappearance after reductions by a local copper smelter.
844
What ongoing environmental management need is indicated by the situation at Kejimkujik Lake in Nova Scotia?
Continued efforts are necessary for the recovery of other lakes.
845
How have human activities, particularly agriculture, altered nutrient cycles?
They have drastically changed the natural movement and storage of nutrients, often removing them from one area and adding them to another, leading to imbalances.
846
What impact does intensive agriculture have on soil nutrients?
It can deplete soil nutrients, especially in poorer soils, leading to unsustainable farming practices.
847
How have agricultural practices affected nitrogen levels in ecosystems?
They have led to increased nitrogen inputs, with the use of organic amendments and inorganic fertilizers more than doubling nitrogen levels globally.
848
What ecological issues arise from excess nitrogen in ecosystems?
It can exceed the critical load, leading to leaching into groundwater and runoff into aquatic systems, causing contamination and ecological harm.
849
What is eutrophication and what causes it?
Eutrophication is characterized by algal blooms that deplete oxygen in water bodies, caused by nutrient runoff.
850
What significant environmental issue does the Mississippi River contribute to?
Nitrogen pollution in the Gulf of Mexico, resulting in seasonal dead zones that affect fisheries.
851
What historical case illustrates the long-term impacts of nutrient enrichment on fish populations?
The eutrophication of Lake Erie.
852
What types of toxic chemicals do humans release into the environment?
A wide variety, including synthetic compounds that can accumulate in organisms and lead to biological magnification.
853
What are common examples of toxins that disrupt endocrine systems?
Chlorinated hydrocarbons like PCBs and pesticides such as DDT.
854
What does biological magnification refer to?
The increasing concentration of toxins at higher trophic levels, affecting top-level carnivores the most.
855
What was a significant finding regarding PCB concentrations in the Great Lakes?
PCB concentrations in herring gull eggs are nearly 5000 times higher than in phytoplankton.
856
What was the impact of Rachel Carson's 'Silent Spring' on public awareness?
It raised awareness about the dangers of DDT, leading to its eventual ban and recovery of affected bird populations.
857
What dilemma does the continued use of DDT in tropical regions present?
The conflict between public health (combating malaria) and environmental protection.
858
What growing concern underscores the need for continued research and regulation in ecosystems?
The presence of pharmaceuticals in the environment.
859
What is DDT and why is it significant in ecological discussions?
DDT (Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane) is a pesticide with a complicated history due to its ecological impact.
860
What should the use of pesticides be limited to, and why?
Pesticide use should be limited and combined with other methods like mosquito netting to mitigate its effects on ecosystems and avoid disrupting local wildlife.
861
What are the long-term effects of DDT on bird populations?
DDT can lead to eggshell thinning and population declines in species such as the Bald Eagle and Peregrine Falcon.
862
How do pharmaceuticals enter ecosystems, and what is one effect they have on aquatic life?
Pharmaceuticals enter ecosystems through waste disposal and agricultural runoff, and can cause feminization in fish due to compounds like estrogen.
863
What was demonstrated in the Ontario study regarding synthetic estrogen?
The study showed that low concentrations of synthetic estrogen led to significant changes in fish populations, highlighting the impact of pharmaceuticals on biodiversity.
864
What is the persistence of toxic chemicals like mercury in the environment?
Toxic chemicals such as mercury can persist for decades, accumulating in the food chain and posing risks to human health.
865
What is methylmercury, and why is it particularly harmful?
Methylmercury is a by-product of industrial processes that bioaccumulates in fish, posing health risks when consumed by humans.
866
What human activities have significantly increased greenhouse gas concentrations?
The burning of fossil fuels and deforestation have significantly increased greenhouse gas concentrations, leading to global warming.
867
What is the relationship between carbon dioxide levels and climate change?
Rising carbon dioxide levels are well-documented to correlate with climate change, affecting species and ecosystems worldwide.
868
What are the consequences of ozone depletion?
Ozone depletion leads to increased UV radiation, which has serious health implications, including higher rates of skin cancer and cataracts, and detrimental effects on ecosystems.
869
What international agreement was established to address ozone depletion?
The Montreal Protocol, established in 1987, successfully reduced CFC emissions through international cooperation.
870
What is the concept of sustainable development?
Sustainable development aims to meet current needs without compromising future generations, integrating ecological, social, and economic considerations.
871
Why is conservation emphasized in sustainable development?
Conservation is crucial in the face of habitat loss and climate change, requiring collaboration between governments, NGOs, and local communities.
872
How does Costa Rica exemplify successful conservation efforts?
Costa Rica's establishment of nature reserves and promotion of ecotourism has led to economic benefits and serves as a model for sustainable development.
873
What is biophilia, and how does it relate to human connection to nature?
Biophilia suggests that humans have an innate connection to nature, influencing our appreciation and understanding of biodiversity.
874
How does historical evidence reflect humanity's relationship with nature?
Ancient art depicting wildlife shows the long-standing relationship between humans and the natural world.
875
What role does education play in conservation?
Education promotes awareness and understanding of ecological issues, encouraging responsible stewardship of the environment.
876
Why is the integration of biology with social sciences important for conservation?
Integrating biology with social sciences and humanities is essential for developing effective conservation strategies that resonate with diverse communities.
