Module 4: Biodiversity + classifications Flashcards
1
Q
Species Richness:
A
The number of different species in an area
2
Q
Species Evenness:
A
The relative abundance of each species living in an area.
3
Q
Genetic Biodiversity:
A
The variation of alleles within a species (or population)
4
Q
Sampling:
A
A group of methods used to measure an estimate of the number of individuals in an area, without having to measure all individuals, or the abundance of particular characteristics.
5
Q
Reliability ~ Sampling Bias:
A
Sampling bias is produced by an unrepresentative selection process.
6
Q
Reliability ~ The effect of chance:
A
Due to chance, the area sampled may be unrepresentative of the entire area. This can be lessened by increasing the sample size - to reduce the chance.
7
Q
What are the different sampling techniques used for animals:
A
Pooter Sweep Nets - swept over long grass Pitfall Traps Tree Beating - dislodge insects from tree Kick Sampling
8
Q
What are the different sampling techniques used for plants:
A
Quadrats - Point Quadrats - Frame Quadrats Line Transect Belt Transect
9
Q
Kick Sampling:
A
Disturb a riverbed - hold net downstream
10
Q
Pooter:
A
Sucking on a mouthpiece to draw insects into chamber
11
Q
Point Quadrats:
A
Frame with a horizontal bar ~ pins in the bar equal distant apart ~ each plant pin touches reccorded
12
Q
Frame Quadrats
A
1m^2 - square frame divided into equal sections - species recorded.
13
Q
What is the range of a Simpson’s index value?
A
Between 0 and 1
14
Q
If the Simpson’s Index value is closer to one it ______
A
Suggests a high biodiversity.
15
Q
Factors affecting biodiversity:
A
Deforestation
Agriculture
Climate Change + Global Warming
16
Q
Deforestation:
A
- Directly reduces the number of trees
- If a single tree felled- multiple species harmed
- Destruction of of habitats, food sources
- Animals are forced to migrate to surroundings
17
Q
Agriculture:
A
- Deforestation for crop planting and rearing animals
- Creates a MONOCULTURE - massive reduction of biodiversity
- Removal of Hedgerow
- Use of herbicides and pesticides - destroy insects and food sources
- Fertiliser can cause eutrophication of nearby bodies of water.
18
Q
Climate Change + Global Warming:
A
Melting of polar ice caps- habitat loss - extinction of species
Rising Sea Levels - Reductions of terrestrial and freshwater habitats + bleaching of coral reefs.
Higher Temperatures + Less Rainfall - xerophytic plants will become dominant - hydrophytic plants will be lost + animals that feed on them.
Migration of insects - spread of pathogens - death of vulnerable species.
Acidification of Ocean - death of phytoplankton + skeletal shells can’t form
19
Q
Reasons for Maintaining Biodiversity:
A
Aesthetic Reasons
Economic Reasons
Ecological Reasons
Ethical Reasons
20
Q
Aesthetic Reasons for Maintaining Biodiversity:
A
The presence of different flora and fauna enrich lives ~ tourism
Nature provides inspiration for artists.
Patients more quickly recover surrounded by natural environments.
21
Q
Economic Reasons for Maintaining Biodiversity:
A
High Biodiversity promotes tourism
Greater diversity ~ greater potential of manufacturing useful products ~ e.g medicines
High biodiversity protects against abiotic stresses e.g natural disasters
Many plants are sources of food, drink, clothes, fuels, materials, and for scientific research
-Food security
22
Q
Ecological Reasons for Maintaining Biodiversity:
A
- Disruption to the interdependence of organisms. Removal of one species will affect others.
- Some species (keystone species) have an important role in maintaining the ecological community. ~ removal can have a drastic effect on habitat with physical changes to the environment.
23
Q
Biodiversity:
A
The variety in habitats, organisms, and genotypes in an area.
24
Q
Sensor: Anemometer
A
Wind Speed - m/s
25
Sensor: Light Meter
Light Intensity- lx
26
Sensor: Humidity Sensor
Relative Humidity- mg/dm^3
27
Sensor: pH Probe
pH
28
Sensor: Temperature Probe
Temperature
29
Sensor: Dissolved Oxygen Probe
Oxygen Content - mg/dm^3
30
A high diversity index suggests:
- Environment is well established and stable
- Favourable abiotic conditions would cause a greater likelihood of finding a variety of species
- Biotic factors are important in the survival of species - due to great competition caused by high biodiversity.
31
A low diversity index suggests:
- Harsh and unstable environment - potentially due to pollution.
- Harsh abiotic factors may be the cause - killed species as they were unable to tolerate abiotic stress.
32
Species:
A group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. (Hybrids are not viable because they can't produce gametes)
33
Population:
A group of organisms of the same species at the same location and time.
34
Community:
A group of populations living and interacting in the same area.
35
Ecosystem:
The interaction between both the biotic and abiotic elements.
36
Ethical Reasons for Maintaining Biodiversity:
- Protecting potential sources of medicine
- Protect the livelihoods of indigenous populations
- Conserve for future generations.
- Responsibility to prevent harm to the ecosystem.
37
Advantages to greater genetic biodiversity:
Allows for the survival of a species despite great selection pressures.
38
In Situ Conservation:
```
Conservation zones
Controlling the introduction of species
Protecting habitats
Promoting particular species
Legal protection of endangered species.
```
39
Ex Situ Conservation:
Relocating organisms to safer areas
Isolated breeding programs - animal sanctuary
Botanic Gardens - conservation + edu
Seed Banks - protect seeds of plants from biotic and abiotic factors - can be used for preserving plants for future medicines.
40
3 Reasons for the decline of rainforests:
- Industrial development and construction.
- Exploitation of natural resources and deforestation for wood
- Deforestation to acquire fertile land for agriculture
41
Extinct:
No surviving organisms of the species
42
Extinct in Wild:
No members of the species are alive outside of captivity
43
Endangered:
A very low population and could become extinct without intervention.
44
Vulnerable:
The species has the potential to become endangered.
45
In Situ Conservation: +ve's
Conserves both the species and habitat
Less disruptive and larger population
Greater chance of recovery
46
Ex Situ Conservation: +ve's
Protects individual animals
Protects animals from both biotic and abiotic factors
Protects a species despite the destruction of habitat,
47
In Situ Conservation: -ve's
Difficult to control external factors.
48
Ex Situ Conservation: -ve's
Expensive
Animals can catch human disease
Unnatural behaviour
49
What is binomial nomenclature?:
A format to write the names of species - Latin words with the Genus followed by species.
50
Why is Latin binomial nomenclature used?
Easier communication - greater clarity - international system - identify and compare organisms by recognised characteristics.
51
What are the different units of classification from largest to smallest:
Domains - Kingdom - Phylum - Class - Order - Family - Genus - Species
52
Species Definition:
The smallest unit of classification: A group of individual organisms whose members are able to interbreed freely to produce fertile, viable offspring.
53
Why are hybrids infertile?
There's a difference in the number of chromosomes between the two parents, causing the offspring to have the incorrect number of chromosomes to correctly produce gametes.
54
Define the term classification:
Placing living organisms into taxa based on their similarities.
55
Taxonomy:
The study of the principles behind the classification of organisms, according to their observable features or genetic characteristics.
56
Phylogeny:
The study of how closely different species are related - involves the study of evolutionary relationships between organisms seen in an evolutionary tree.
57
Phylogenetic Classification:
- Differentiate organisms based on genetics
- Organisms who share a greater level of homology in their DNA or amino acid sequences are expected to be more closely related.
58
What is meant by hierarchal:
Placing groups of animals into sub-groups that grow more and more specific.
59
Features of eukarya:
- Nucleus
- membrane-bound organelles
- Multiple types of RNA
- Histone bound DNA
- Unused sections of DNA
60
Features of Archaea:
- No nucleus
- Unused sections of DNA
- Extremophiles
- Branched phospholipid monolayer.
61
Features of Eubacteria:
Peptidoglycan cell walls
No unused DNA
No nucleus
62
What is the purpose of the branched phospholipid monolayer in archaea?
To provide resistance to extreme conditions (e.g high temps)
63
Difference between the Domain and Kingdoms systems?
- In the domain system the relation between all eukaryotic organisms is acknowledged, whereas in the kingdom system completely separates the kingdoms.
- The domain system is based on rRNA.
- The domain system separates prokaryotes in eubacteria and archaea.
64
Why have classification systems changed over time:
- Knowledge changes - e.g DNA technology + electron microscopes
- Differences in scientific opinion and differing strengths of different systems.
65
Features of fungi kingdom:
Chitin cell walls
Eukaryotic
Contain membrane-bound organelles
reproduce using spores
66
Two similarities between plants and fungi:
Both eukaryotic
| Both are sessile (not moving)
67
Saprophytic:
Feed off of dead organisms
68
Autotrophic:
Feed off of photosynthesis
69
heterotrophic:
eats other plants or animals for energy and nutrients
70
How is scientific research validated:
- Peer review
- Scientific conferences
- Replication of work
- Search for supporting evidence
71
What is a root on a phylogenetic tree:
The initial ancestor common to all organisms within the cladogram.
72
What are nodes on a phylogenetic tree:
Each node corresponds to a hypothetical common ancestor that speciated to give rise to two (or more) daughter taxa
73
What is an outgroup on a phylogenetic tree:
the most distantly related species which functions as a point of comparison and reference.
74
What are Clades on a phylogenetic tree:
A common ancestor and all of its descendants (Node and all branches)
75
Why do we use phylogenetic trees:
To account and evaluate the evolutionary relationships between different species.
76
Interspecific variation:
Variation between different species
77
Intraspecific variation:
Variation between organisms of the same species
78
Causes of variation:
Differences in genetic material - meiosis -independent assortment + gene shuffling at chiasmata
-Mutation - either somatic (not inheritable) or in gametes
Different exposed phenotypes - differing alleles
Difference in environment (scarring)
79
Discontinuous Variation (graph)
Present on a bar chart or pie chart - no inbetween each value - e.g shoe size
80
Continuous Variation (graph)
Frequency table or histogram - tends to be normal distribution
e.g height or mass
81
Student's T-test:
Compare mean values of two sets of data
Both sets of data must have a normal distribution
The data must be continuous.
The sets of data can have different sample sizes.
82
Spearman's rank correlation coefficient:
Relationship between two sets of data
Will depict if there's no correlation or a +ve/-ve correlation.
Used when measurements are taken and there is a known association between the measurements in the sample
83
How can DNA analysis be useful to taxonomists?
The DNA can be compared between multiple species to find similarities in the proportion of their nitrogenous bases to determine whether or not to classify the species into similar/ different groups.
84
Evolution:
The gradual change in heritable traits of organisms over many millions of years.
85
Evolution in terms of alleles:
A change in the allele frequency of a population's gene pool over successive generations.
86
Darwin's 4 observations:
Organisms produce more offspring than survive.
There is variation in the characteristics between members of the same species.
some characteristics can be inherited.
Individuals best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive.
87
4 stages of natural selection:
Overproduction
Variation - (Due to mutation + meiosis)
Selection via adaptation -
Survival of better-adapted (phenotypes) individuals - breeding and inheritance of these adaptations. (alleles inherited)
88
Density Dependent Factors (selection pressures)
```
Predators
Availability (Shelter and Water)
Nutrient Supply (food)
Disease
Accumulation of Waste
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89
Density Independent Factors (selection pressures)
```
Phenomena (natural disasters)
Abiotic Factors (temp)
Weather Conditions (floods, storms)
```
90
Pentadactyl Limbs:
A homologous bone structure in which mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles share a similar arrangement of bones in their appendages based on a five-digit limb.
91
Divergent evolution:
A homologous structure that has adapted to the species' specific niche.`
92
Rock Strata:
Layers of rock containing fossils from different geological eras.
-This can help us to identify species alive during different eras - radioactivity of carbon isotopes can be used to estimate a more specific number of years.
93
Limitations of Rock Strata:
They leave gaps in the evolutionary timeline, leaving uncertain periods of transition.
94
4 types of evidence for evolution from paleontology:
The fossil record - Preserved remains reveal features of an ancestor to compare with living descendants - change over time- dated by the age of the strata found in.
Traces (e.g footprints) can provide insight into behaviour
95
Evolution: comparative biochemistry:
A greater similarity in the DNA base sequence suggests they have a more recent common ancestor.
Important molecules to be considered are:
Cytochrome C
Ribosomal RNA
Molecular sequences (DNA base and Amino acid order)
96
Adaptation definition:
Evolved characteristics that increase an organism's chance of survival and reproduction.
97
Anatomical adaptation examples:
Beak shape, teeth, body covering, spikes, leaf size, hair, feathers
98
Behavioral adaptation examples:
Mimicry with noises, hibernation, nocturnal,
99
Physiological adaptation examples:
Turtles Anti-freeze chemicals - Desert Rats have longer loops of henle
100
Analogous Structures:
- Dissimilar anatomy
- Similar functions
- Unrelated animals
- Different developmental pattern
- Dissimilar in structure
101
Convergent evolution is caused by ________ pressures
Convergent evolution is caused by shared selection pressures
102
Homologous Structures:
- Similar anatomy
- Dissimilar functions
- Related animals
- Inherited from a common ancestor
- similar in developmental patterns
- similar structure and origin
103
The founder effect:
A founding population with skewed variation will cause the local population to have less variation.
Therefore less varied genotypes and phenotypes.
104
'Bottleneck' ~ evolution
A random event that greatly reduces the population.
105
What are 3 purposes of repeating an experiment or sample:
- Identifying anomalies
- Calculating a mean
- Check the variation (standard deviation)
106
Chi-squared test:
Comparison of hypothesis and observations ~
The purpose of this test is to determine if a difference between observed data and expected data is due to chance, or if it is due to a relationship between the variables
107
Standard Deviation (When to use):
When measurements are taken and you want to find the spread of data about the mean.
108
Paired t-tests:
Used to compare the means of two sets of data when taken from the same individual before/after an event.
Both groups are the same size.
Degrees of freedom = n-1.
109
Unpaired t-test:
Used to compare the means of two sets of data when taken from different individuals or from over an area.
Degrees of freedom = n1 + n2 -2
