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2007psy > module 9 > Flashcards

module 9 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is stimulus-response learning?

A

A: Learning where a particular stimulus triggers a specific response. Includes classical and operant conditioning.

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2
Q

What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?

A

A: Classical = involuntary response to two associated stimuli; Operant = voluntary response shaped by consequences.

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3
Q

What is the Hebbian rule?

A

A: “Neurons that fire together, wire together”—repeated activation strengthens synaptic connections.

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4
Q

What happens at the neural level during classical conditioning (e.g., eye-blink)?

A

A: Weak auditory-motor synapse is strengthened when paired with strong somatosensory-motor synapse.

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5
Q

What is a conditioned emotional response (CER)?

A

A: An emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus, learned via classical conditioning.

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6
Q

Which brain region is critical for CERs?

A

A: The amygdala, particularly the lateral and central nuclei (learning), (emotional expression).

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7
Q

What happens in the amygdala during CERs?

A

A: Weak sensory inputs (e.g., visual) become strong via pairing with strong inputs (e.g., auditory), forming a conditioned response.

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8
Q

What role does glutamate play in CERs?

A

A: Long-term potentiation (LTP) increases glutamate receptor activity, strengthening synapses in the lateral nucleus.

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9
Q

What did Migues et al. (2010) find?

A

A: Blocking LTP in the lateral amygdala prevents the formation of conditioned emotional responses.

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10
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

A: Learning where behaviour is shaped by consequences (reinforcers or punishers).

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11
Q

What is the role of the basal ganglia in operant conditioning?

A

A: It automates learned behaviours, freeing up the cortex; receives sensory/motor input and connects to motor areas to drive actions.

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12
Q

What are the basal ganglia components involved?

A

A: Neostriatum (caudate & putamen), globus pallidus, and connections to motor cortices.

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13
Q

What is the role of dopamine in reinforcement?

A

A: Dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens strengthens sensory-motor connections linked to rewards.

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14
Q

What does the mesolimbic pathway do?

A

A: VTA → nucleus accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus; mediates dopamine-based reinforcement learning.

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15
Q

How does the prefrontal cortex contribute?

A

A: It signals the VTA via glutamate to fire dopamine neurons, based on goals and executive functioning.

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16
Q

What is perceptual learning?

A

A: Learning to recognize a particular stimulus, involving changes in the sensory association cortex.

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17
Q

What is motor learning?

A

A: Learning to make a new motor response, usually in reaction to sensory input, involving motor circuits in the brain.

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18
Q

How are perceptual and motor learning connected?

A

A: Through conditioning, which strengthens stimulus-response connections between sensory input and motor output.

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19
Q

What brain structures are important for motor learning?

A

A: Motor cortex, basal ganglia, supplementary motor area, premotor cortex, and ventral premotor cortex.

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20
Q

What is the function of the supplementary motor area?

A

A: Executes previously learned automatic movements.

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21
Q

What is the function of the premotor cortex?

A

A: Involved in motor learning guided by sensory information.

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22
Q

What is the function of the ventral premotor cortex?

A

A: It contains mirror neurons that fire while observing others’ movements.

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23
Q

What role do the basal ganglia play in learning?

A

A: Critical for motor learning and forming automatic, non-declarative responses.

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24
Q

How does sleep affect motor learning?

A

A: Sleep aids in the consolidation of motor memories between practice sessions.

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25
What is an example of motor learning impairment?
A: Huntington’s disease impairs learning automatic motor sequences (e.g., button pressing).
26
What is visual perceptual learning?
A: Learning to recognize objects by sight, involving the primary visual and extrastriate cortex.
27
What does the ventral stream of visual processing do?
A: Responsible for object recognition (projects to the inferior temporal cortex).
28
What does the dorsal stream of visual processing do?
A: Responsible for perceiving object location (projects to posterior parietal cortex).
29
What happens when the inferior temporal cortex is damaged?
Impairs the ability to recognize visual stimuli (e.g., agnosia).
30
How is perceptual memory stored?
A: Through neural circuit changes in the sensory cortex that reactivate when the stimulus is re-encountered.
31
What area is activated by perceived movement in images?
A: MT/MST area of the extrastriate cortex, even when motion is only implied.
32
How is sensory memory retrieved?
A: Retrieval of sensory memories activates the relevant sensory association cortex (e.g., visual, gustatory).
33
What is relational learning?
A: Learning about the relationships between stimuli, such as spatial location, sequences of events, or associations between objects.
34
What are the three main types of memory?
A: Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
35
Describe sensory memory.
A: Brief memory of sensory input lasting milliseconds to seconds.
36
Describe short-term memory.
A: Holds limited information for seconds to minutes; improved by rehearsal and chunking.
37
Describe long-term memory.
A: Stores consolidated information for minutes to decades; includes declarative and non-declarative memory.
38
What is declarative memory?
A: Also known as explicit memory; includes facts (semantic) and personal experiences (episodic).
39
What is non-declarative memory?
A: Also known as implicit memory; includes motor skills and conditioned responses (e.g., riding a bike).
40
What is anterograde amnesia?
A: Inability to form new memories after brain damage
41
What is retrograde amnesia?
A: Inability to recall memories from before brain damage.
42
What did HM’s case reveal about the hippocampus?
A: It is critical for memory consolidation but not for short-term or long-term memory storage.
43
What learning abilities were spared in HM?
A: Perceptual learning, stimulus-response learning, and motor learning.
44
What does memory consolidation involve?
A: Converting short-term memory to long-term memory, primarily via the hippocampus.
45
Where are semantic memories stored?
A: In the neocortex, particularly the anterolateral temporal lobe.
46
What type of memory is impaired in semantic dementia?
A: Semantic memory is lost, while episodic memory for recent events can be spared.
47
How does damage to the hippocampus affect spatial memory?
A: Causes severe impairments in learning spatial environments and navigation.
48
What are place cells?
A: Neurons in the hippocampus that fire when an animal is in a specific location.
49
What are grid, head direction, and border cells?
A: Cells in the entorhinal cortex that encode spatial location, orientation, and environmental boundaries.
50
What does hippocampal activity represent during navigation tasks?
A: Both the animal’s current location and its intended direction or goal.
51
What is Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)?
A: A long-term increase in synaptic strength following repeated high-frequency stimulation of a synapse.
52
Why is LTP important?
A: It is believed to be a key mechanism underlying learning and memory.
53
54
Where is LTP primarily studied?
A: In the hippocampal formation, especially between the perforant path and the dentate gyrus.
55
What structures make up the hippocampal formation?
A: Entorhinal cortex, perforant path, dentate gyrus, CA3, CA1, subicular cortex.
56
How is LTP experimentally induced?
A: By delivering a high-frequency burst (~100 pulses in a few seconds) to the perforant path and recording increased EPSPs in the dentate gyrus.
57
What are population EPSPs?
A: Extracellular recordings of postsynaptic potentials from multiple neurons, indicating synaptic strength.
58
What conditions are needed to induce LTP?
A: 1) Activation of synapses 2) Simultaneous depolarization of the postsynaptic neuron.
59
What is the role of NMDA receptors in LTP?
A: NMDA receptors allow calcium (Ca²⁺) to enter the postsynaptic neuron but only if the membrane is depolarized (removing Mg²⁺ block) and glutamate is present.
60
What role do dendritic spikes play in LTP?
A: Dendritic spikes depolarize the postsynaptic membrane, enabling NMDA receptor channels to open.
61
What is associative LTP?
A: A process where concurrent stimulation of weak and strong synapses strengthens the weak ones via shared depolarization.
62
What is the role of AMPA receptors in LTP?
A: Calcium entry via NMDA receptors causes insertion of additional AMPA receptors, increasing sodium influx and strengthening the synapse.
63
What ions do AMPA and NMDA receptors let in?
A: AMPA: Sodium (Na⁺) NMDA: Calcium (Ca²⁺) and some Na⁺
64
What presynaptic change supports LTP?
A: Increased glutamate release, possibly triggered by nitric oxide (NO) sent from the postsynaptic cell.
65
What presynaptic change supports LTP?
A: Increased glutamate release, possibly triggered by nitric oxide (NO) sent from the postsynaptic cell.
66
What are the postsynaptic structural changes in LTP?
A: Growth and enlargement of dendritic spines; possibly new spine formation.
67
What is Early LTP?
A: Initial phase involving increased AMPA receptors and short-term changes in synaptic strength.
68
What is Long-Lasting LTP (L-LTP)?
A: A later phase of LTP that requires protein synthesis to sustain synaptic changes for hours or longer.
69
True or False: The hippocampus is in the medial temporal lobe and is involved in LTP.
A: True
70
True or False: Signals enter the dentate gyrus from CA1 neurons.
A: False – Signals enter from the entorhinal cortex via the perforant path.
71
True or False: CA1 cells are pyramidal cells.
A: True
72
True or False: Only NMDA receptors are involved in LTP.
A: False – AMPA receptors are also crucial.
73
True or False: GABA is the main neurotransmitter involved in LTP.
A: False – Glutamate is the main neurotransmitter.
74
True or False: NMDA receptors are blocked by Mg²⁺ unless the membrane is depolarized.
A: True
75
True or False: Sodium influx is a secondary messenger triggering LTP.
A: False – Calcium influx acts as the secondary messenger.
76
True or False: Long-lasting LTP requires protein synthesis.
A: True

2007psy (6 decks)

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