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1
Q

The value chain

A

Acquire
- acquire the acreage (land)

Explore
- find petroleum

Appraise
- determine size/complexity

Develop
- drill wells and build facility

Produce
- get the petroleum out

Abandon
- remove facility

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2
Q

“The petroleum system”

A

Source

Reservoir

Seal

Trap

(Migration and timing)

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3
Q

Reservoir =

A

In the subsurface
Filled with water
Petroleum displaces

POROSITY - storage
Net:gross

PERMEABILITY - flow

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4
Q

Formation volume factors

A

Oil shrinks at the surface
- gases exsolved in the subsurface

Gas expands at the surface (due to lower pressure)

> > > how much actually there?

> > > how much left in the subsurface?
- oil ~65%

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5
Q

Tools for exploration and production

A

Satellite images

Seismic

Core and cuttings

Outcrop data

Gravity and magnetic

Wire line logs

Fluid samples

Petroleum seepage

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6
Q

Source =

A

Organic material preserved in sediments

Bury and heat

Crack

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7
Q

Wireline logs

A

Tools run into well on a wireline, measure

Rock/fluid/void properties

P, T

Fluid flow

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8
Q

Gamma log

A

Sandstones and limestones have a low natural radioactivity

Mudstones have a high natural reactivity due to clay minerals and feldspars…

  • K!!!
  • U
  • Th
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9
Q

What does petroleum play require?

A

Mature source rock (buried deep enough to convert solid phase organic material to oil and gas)

Reservoir

Regional seal

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10
Q

Plays =

A

Reservoirs/seal combinations

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11
Q

Prospect =

A

Petroleum target ready to be drilled

  • trap is mapped
  • size/key risks defined
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12
Q

Salt withdrawal =

A

Less dense = can rise and create a gap

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13
Q

Appraisal =

A

Determine if it can be developed economically

  • how big
  • reservoir architecture
  • reservoir quality
  • compartmentalised?
  • fluid contacts?
  • what are the petroleum fluids?
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14
Q

Baffles and barriers =

A

Low permeability rocks

Baffle = small, oil can flow around

Think about vertical/horizontal drilling

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15
Q

Stabilisation wedges =

A

7 25 Gt wedges in order to halt CO2 and find alternatives

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16
Q

Stabilisation wedges - examples

A

1) increase fuel economy of 2 billion cars 30-60mpg
2) reduce electricity use in homes/offices/stores by 25%

Replace coal…
3) double nuclear power

4) x40 wind power
5) x700 solar power
6) stop deforestation
7) CCS at 800 large coal fired power plants

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17
Q

How does CCS work?

A

Capture

A) compress - transport - inject/store in fluid state

B) sequester = react to form an inert material

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18
Q

What can you react CO2 with to form an inert material?

A

Fly ash/combustion residues

Peridotite

C-Fix carbon concrete

Novacem

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19
Q

Types of carbon capture

A

Pre combustion

Oxyfuel

Post combustion

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20
Q

Pre combustion carbon capture

A

Separate CO2 from the H/CO2 mixture obtained from fossil fuels

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21
Q

Oxyfuel carbon capture

A

Burn in pure oxygen = CO2 and steam

Condense and isolate

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22
Q

Post combustion carbon capture (MOST)

A

Use solvents to remove CO2 from dilute, low pressure exhaust gases

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23
Q

CO2 storage - limiting technology

i.e. difficulties with the technology

A

Data density - difficult to compare sites

Site capacity

Site injectivity (?fracture if too fast)

Reservoir and seal reactivity (alters water chemistry)

Site integrity

Site monitoring

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24
Q

CO2 storage options

A

Depleted oil/gas reservoirs

Enhanced Oil Recovery

Deep unused saline aquifers*

Enhanced CBM recovery

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25
Saline aquifers =
Geological formations with water too brackish for potable purposes
26
Goaf =
Void space due to coal mining/underground coal gasification - up to 2000 x more permeable than deep saline aquifers
27
Trapping mechanisms
Structural and stratigraphic Residual CO2 in pore spaces Solubility Mineral
28
Residual CO2 trapping
Brine = wetting fluid Adheres to pore sides due to surface tension Brine moves upwards = CO2 displaced BUT passes through pore throat = some trapped
29
Solubility trapping
CONVECTION ENHANCED DISSOLUTION Increase [CO2] = increase brine density = convection
30
Cosmic Ray Muon Tomography
Dense minerals (high atomic number) deflect charged, very penetrating particles created by cosmic radiation striking in the atmosphere Sensors in subsurface to see how many have come through See where CO2 is moving above of sensors are underneath
31
Types of geothermal energy
Ground source heat (shallow) Hydrothermal systems Engineered geothermal systems
32
Ground source heat pumps
Earth = source in winter, sink in summer Absorbs/rejects heat from/to the ground 6m ~constant depth Energy efficient heating/cooling device
33
Hydrothermal systems
Deep convection cells
34
Engineered geothermal systems =
Fracture stimulation of hot, dry rock e.g. granite Currently rely on natural hydrothermal systems and high heat flow on plate boundaries
35
Ways to extract heat in geothermal power generation
DRY STEAM FLASH STEAM BINARY CYCLE
36
Dry steam
Hydrothermal fluids used directly >210 degrees ~20-100 MWe
37
Binary cycle
Lower T fields Separate hydrothermal from “binary” e.g. butane/pentane Then vaporise binary fluid in a heat exchanger to drive a turbine
38
What does coal formation need?
Abundant land plants - therefore <465Ma (before then was limited, need to have evolved and grown) Anaerobic decomposition - near surface water table! Rapid basin subsidence/sediment accumulation = economically thick deposits Intermittent high clastic input (burial)
39
Ideal conditions for coal formation
DELTAS - esp elongate/birdsfoot; weak marine currents/waves Valley bogs Blanket bogs e.g. UK Quarternary Peat deposits
40
What happens to coal's properties with increasing rank?
Increase calorific value Decrease volatile components
41
Rank order of coal
Peat Lignite (soft brown coal) Sub-bituminous (hard brown coal) Bituminous Anthracite Graphite
42
How does the distribution of sands affect whether coal is deposited?
Differential compaction - mud compacts more than sandstone - sandstone "blocks" coal formation SEAM SPLITS SEAM THINNING/ABSENCE WASHOUTS - coal eroded away and then filled with sand
43
Coalfields of Britain and Ireland
Between Caledonian and Variscan orogeny = basin = sediment accumulation ("PALAEOGEOGRAPHY") Region of rifted continental crust between Highlands massif and marie Cornwall-Rhenish basin Post-Carboniferous coal is minor Peat = NW Britain - Ireland 25% electricity
44
History of coal exploitation in the UK
12TH-14TH C - Bishops of Durham charged people for transporting coal over their land in the NE 17TH C - long wall mining = long and not deep - 40% recovery DEMAND INCREASED 18TH C - deep mining - 1913 = peak production 1947 - NCB standardised operating procedures 1984 - Miners Strike - offset with oil/gas - cost $7 billion 2015 - last deep pit closes, some opencast remain
45
UK operations 2010
11 producing underground mines 33 producing surface mines
46
UK Major Producers 2010
``` UK Coal Mining Ltd Scottish Coal Mining Company Ltd ATH Resources Ltd Celtic Energy Hargreaves Services Powerfuel ```
47
UK operation 2016
0 producing underground mines 33 producing surface mines Fewer applications and many refused
48
What do reserves-to-production graphs indicate?
Longevity
49
Types of reserve
TECHNICAL - using available technology PROVEN - extant economic/operating conditions PROBABLE - most likely recoverable POSSIBLE - P10 reserve/equivalent
50
What happens as the size of a reserve increases?
The likelihood to be able to distract diminishes
51
Ways to extract coal
Mine CBM + ECBM UCG
52
Gas in coal
Free gas in micropores and cleats Methane dissolved in water Adsorbed gas - coating around edge of matrix grains - semi fluid - increase pressure = gas
53
CBM production profile
Dewatering stage - permeability increases as pressure reduces Stable production stage Decline stage Methane and water plotted on same graph
54
CBM characteristics
``` Low permeability Cleat dominated Peak 0.3mmscf/d Many wells Co-produces water ```
55
Conventional gas characteristics
``` Low to high permeability Matrix dominated Min. 20mmscf/d Few wells No water production ```
56
Enhanced Coal Bed Methane
Carbon dioxide preferentially adsorbed and methane desorbed N.B. Process self limiting b/c CO2 adsorption reduces permeability
57
Underground Coal Gasification
Coal to gas while underground 2 wells interconnected Oxygen injected = reaction = syngas (H/CO/CH4/CO2)
58
Examples of UCG
Hett Hill, Durham 1912 (trialled) Yerostigaz, Russia 1961 (operating) Pilot schemes in Australia and N America Interest in China/India
59
Risks associated with CCS
CO2 and CH4 leakage SEISMICITY GROUND MOVEMENT AND DISPLACEMENT OF BRINE
60
CCS Risks - CO2 and CH4 storage
Due to well/cap rock failure - chances unknown CO2 leakage generally lowest for coal seams and highest for deep saline aquifers = HEALTH HAZARD = ECOSYSTEM IMPACT = SOIL/GROUNDWATER QUALITY
61
CCS Risks - Seismicity
Frequency can be reduced by controlling injection pressure = INFRASTRUCTURE/BUILDING DAMAGE = CAP ROCK DAMAGE AND SUBSEQUENT CO2 LEAKAGE
62
CCS Risks - Ground movement and displacement of brine
= BUILDINGS AND INFRASTRUCTURE = SEISMICITY = WATER TABLE RISE = INCREASE OF SALINITY IN DRINKING WATER RESOURCES
63
Flash steam
Brine and steam separated - at high pressures steam produces more energy MOST POWER PLANTS USE >210 degrees ~20-100MWe
64
Transmissivity =
Permeability x thickness
65
Hydraulic properties of aquifers
TRANSMISSIVITY POROSITY PERMEABILITY - primary = interconnected pores - secondary = fracturing
66
Porosity calculation
Vol voids/total vol Geophysical logs/lab measurements
67
Permeability calculation
Estimate from porosity OR (more reliable) Pumping test = direct borehole measurement
68
Formation resource evaluation
Geological model of aquifer (reservoir) T field maps Hydraulic properties

Environment And Resources (4 decks)

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