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1
Q

What is sulfur used for?

A

Medicine

Sulfuric acid

Match heads

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2
Q

What is magnesium used for?

A

Metal alloys

Medicine

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3
Q

What is phosphorous used for?

A

Super phosphate for agriculture

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4
Q

What is aluminium used for?

A

Agriculture

Food

Building

Electrical

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5
Q

What is barium used for?

A

Medicine

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6
Q

What is fluorine used for?

A

Toothpaste

Smelting ores

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7
Q

What is sodium chloride used for?

A

Food additive

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8
Q

What is barium/caesium used for?

A

Treatment of cancers

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9
Q

What is copper/lead/zinc used for?

A

Pipes

Electrical components

Paints

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10
Q

What are diamonds used for?

A

Drilling

Lasers

Polishing

Jewellery

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11
Q

What is gold used for?

A

Electrical components

Research

Medicine

Jewellery

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12
Q

Resource =

A

Material available to us from the Earth for our daily lives

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13
Q

Economic resource =

A

Known and recoverable today

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14
Q

Sub economic resource =

A

Known but can’t recover at a profit

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15
Q

Reserve (ore) =

A

Concentration of material or element deemed to have value

  • discoverable, mined economically and legally
  • fraction of resource known to exist
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16
Q

How does a resource become a reserve?

A

Relies on:

Recovery at a profit

Physical factors e.g. water, energy, infrastructure

Human factors e.g. politics, taxation, environmental

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17
Q

Grasberg, papa New Guinea

A

World largest gold reserve

2nd largest copper reserve

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18
Q

Enrichment factor =

A

Level of element concentration above crustal abundance that makes it an ore

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19
Q

Hydrothermalism =

A

Viable analogue in ore forming processes for metamorphism

Involves modification of igneous and sedimentary rocks by heat transfer and pressure fluctuation

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20
Q

Syngenetic =

A

Ore deposits that form at the same time as the host rock

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21
Q

Source

A

Large scale, long term geochemical reservoirs

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22
Q

Agent =

A

Means by which metal ores are removed from source and transported to the site of deposition

CHEMICALLY - interact in solution

PHYSICALLY - transport e.g. grains

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23
Q

Deposition, requires…

A

1) suitable site and conditions

2) change in transportation to cause ore forming mineral formation
- physical
- chemical (P/T/pH/Eh)

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24
Q

Energy =

A

Required to mobilise agent
Also assists dissolution prior to transport and deposition

Heat derived from radioactive decay and then transferred by conduction/convection

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25
Direct crystallisation - Example
Uraninite mine in Namibia 2007: 6th largest producer of nuclear energy 125 times U found in normal rocks e.g. black shale enriched in U because organic matter sequestered it
26
Carbonatite =
Igneous rock with high levels of calcite, dolomite and siderite Low levels of silica Unusual to be carbonate rich - low temperature volcanism 550-600
27
How do carbonate melts form?
Liquid immiscibility - silicate minerals crystallise - increase relative carbonate abundance - physically separates
28
Importance of carbonatites
They crystallise with a high % of rare metals - phosphorous (apatite) - iron, titanium (magnetite) - niobium (pyroclore) - zirconium (baddeleyite) + REE - tantalum - uranium - thorium
29
Rare Earth Element deposits - examples
``` Palabora South Africa - Fe - Cu - P - Zr - U 225 megatonnes of copper at 0.7% = worth $9.4 billion ``` Mountain pass California - 8% bastinite with REE in The greatest REE deposit in the world
30
Demand for REE
Hybrid car batteries ~20kg Wind turbines - 2 tonnes of high strength magnets ~30%
31
Pegmatites =
Very coarse grained rocks Big source of REE Crystals several cm in length - granitic - quartz, feldspar, mica - topaz/tourmaline
32
Pegmatite Example
South Dakota Precambrian black hills pegmatite with spodumene (LITHIUM aluminium silicate) crystals 15m
33
Beryllium
Be Beryl Low density, high melting T, resistant Brake disks in jet aircraft, x ray tubes
34
Caesium
Cs Pollucite Atomic clocks, light sensitive detectors Nuclei have different energy states
35
Cerium
Ce Monazite Phosphorescence, high friction High definition TV tubes, lighter flints
36
Lithium
Li Spodumene Low density, high thermal conductivity, low MT Low density alloys, batteries, coolant in nuclear reactions
37
Tantalum
Ta Tantalite High density, machineable, high resistivity, corrosion resistant Military warheads, electronic capacities, surgical implants
38
Tin
Sn Cassiterite Low MT, corrosion resistant Tinplate, float glass, alloys
39
Tungsten
W Wolframite High density, high MT, low thermal expansion Abrasive and cutting tools, light bulb filaments, high speed steel
40
Uranium
U Fissile isotopes Nuclear reactor fuel
41
Pegmatite formation
In situ fractional crystallisation of a pegmatite magma As it progressively crystallises, the wt% of water and incompatible elements increases within the residual melt - crystallises slower - increase grain size
42
Magmatic segregation =
Mineral separation in a magma due to fractional crystallisation to form cumulate layers 2nd pulse of magma allows e.g. chromite to form over a longer period of time
43
Magmatic segregation; chromite - why is it necessary?
Max Cr content in ultra mafic lavas = 0.2 wt% Need >= 30% to mine So cumulate layers are useful!!! E.g. Dwars river on the Bushveld Complex
44
Bushveld and the Great Dyke
World’s most valuable mineral deposit ``` Cr Pt Pd Ru Au It Rh Cu Ni V ```
45
Liqueation of sulphur melt
Liquid immiscibility process
46
What kind of deposits does liqueation of a sulphur melt form?
Nickel, copper and iron basaltic ore deposits = MASSIVE DISSEMINATED SULPHIDE ORES
47
Liqueation of sulphur melt, Example
Voisey’s Bay, Canada One of the worlds largest nickel deposits Olivine gabbro when sulphide coats the minerals
48
Kimberlite formation
A mixture of melt from the mantle and fragmented mantle material is picked up on kimberlites way to the surface Made up of - xenoliths (rock) - xenocrysts (crystals like diamond) Rapid emplacement up pipeline bodies and deposited in areas of very old, stable lithosphere (intraplate)
49
Hydrothermalism =
Any chemical or physical process by which hot, aqueous fluids are a component of ore formation
50
Aqueous fluids involved in hydrothermalism
Meteoric - from precipitation Magmatic - released in eruption Connate - trapped during sedimentation Metamorphic - dehydration Mantle
51
Pathways =
Permeable Porous Fractures Cavities
52
Present day hydrothermalism =
Metal rich hydrothermal fluids actively venting on the earth’s surface Also black smokers
53
Characteristics of present day hydrothermalism
Fluids above magmatic heat sources 200-350 Can be saline Siliceous sinter and travertine deposits Diverse element enrichment
54
Present day hydrothermalism examples
Champagne pool NZ Dalton sea California Red Sea brine pools
55
Black smokers
Stratiform layers of metaliferous sediments - hot basaltic magma percolates H2O - leaches metals - comes to surface - reacts with cold seawater - forms sediment
56
Ocean mining
Papa new guinae
57
Types of ancient hydrothermalism
Porphyry type - Cu - Mo - Au ``` Massive sulphide (SEDEX) - Cu - Pb - Zn (Ba) ``` Mississippi valley type - Pb (galena) - Zn (sphalerite) - BITUMEN
58
Porphyry type formation
250-600 Repeats over 50-250 million years WET MAGMA COOLS - increased water content - bubbles separate out and rises - scavenges soluble metals from magma MAGMA RISES - low pressure - water boils = steam = increases volume HYDROFRACTURE STOCKWORK VEIN SYSTEM RAPID FLUID ESCAPE - rapid crystallisation - porphyritic texture and deposition of ore minerals in fractures
59
Porphyry ore characteristics
Low grade high tonnage - typically 0.3-1% Cu and 50-1000Mt of ore Small diameter intrusions in host rocks Wall rock alteration via ore bearing fluids reacting STOCKWORK with the ore disseminated Pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite
60
Porphyry type | Example
Bingham canyon, Utah
61
SEDEX Submarine hydrothermalism =
Sedimentary Exhalative Massive Sulphide Deposits
62
Characteristics of SEDEX
Mostly mudstones intercollated with very fine sulphide deposits Cu Pb Zn Sometimes barite if SULPHATE
63
SEDEX Example
Red dog, Alaska World’s largest zinc deposit
64
Mississippi valley type
Basically fluids expelled during sediment compaction Migrate into limestone Metals precipitated into cavities and fractures when fluids react with limestone 100-150 degrees
65
Types of sedimentary processes and ore formation
Direct precipitation from water - BIFs Kupferschiefer Placer deposits Weathering/residual deposits - laterites and secondary enrichment
66
BIFs =
Primary Fe3 ion sources - hematite - magnetite - siderite
67
Fe(II) vs Fe (III)
Fe2, ferrous iron Soluble in reducing conditions Fe3, ferric iron Insoluble and therefore precipitates in oxidising conditions
68
How do BIFs form?
Fe2 rich water reacts with neutral water = oxidation = Fe3 = precipitation Iron rich chert with cryptocrystalline silica
69
When did BIFs form?
In Proterozoic/archaean times And 720-660Ma
70
Why did BIFs form when they did in Proterozoic/archaean times?
Low levels of oxygen in the atmosphere Iron in the ocean due to hydrothermal input and continental weathering Photosynthesis suddenly increased oxygen and Fe was oxidised - quickly used oxygen - fe built up - O2 built up etc etc Once oxygen was readily available it didn’t build up so more so didn’t form as “the ferrous ions were exhausted”
71
Why did BIFs form 720-660Ma?
Neoproterozoic times “Snow ball Earth” - lacked water - lacked atmospheric interaction Ice sheet broke up = flood of oxygen into the ocean Short lived and not economic
72
Kupferschiefer =
Stratiform sediment of copper shale Enriched in Cu and Zn Economic in a few areas e.g. Poland (the leading copper producer in Europe)
73
Kupferschiefer deposition
Syn deposition sulphide precipitation Sulphide precipitation due to bacterial reduction of sulphate in seawater Pyrite
74
Kupferschiefer replacement
SYN DIAGENESIS Connate water leaches copper and other metals Replaces primary sulphides with copper bearing sulphides
75
Placer deposit =
Concentrate of heavy minerals
76
How do placer deposits form?
Exposed ore body Weathered = eroded Stream environment = deposited where there is a drop in energy e.g. inside a meander
77
Characteristics of placer deposits
Dense Hard Poor cleavage = not transported far and withstands erosion
78
Placer deposit examples
WITWATERSRAND FOSSIL GOLD PLACER DEPOSIT, SOUTH AFRICA - 2 billion years old - 48,000 metric tonnes of gold mines - 40% of the world’s total production CANADA - ice sheets migrated diamonds and other minerals from kimberlite ORANGE RIVER, AFRICA - old river system which has migrated - 97% gem quality - 60-100 carats
79
Laterites =
In situ residual deposit
80
How do laterites form?
Water percolates into soil/bedrock etc Mobilises and transports metals Form enriched zone with kaolinite and insoluble hydrated oxides
81
Why are laterites economic at low grades?
Poorly consolidated at surface = easy to mine High levels of Al = third most abundant element but usually locked in silicate minerals Cheap labour due to locations
82
Secondary enrichment =
Analogous to laterite formation
83
How do secondary enrichment deposits form?
Oxidising water reacts with metals and soil - oxygen used - more reducing conditions with depth Different reactions take place
84
Secondary enrichment - layers
GOSSAN LAYER - iron cap - pyrite >>> iron oxides LEACHED ZONE - dissolved O2/CO2 in groundwater leaches out minerals = sulfuric acid OXIDISED ZONE - primary >>> secondary minerals = oxides + carbonates - malachite/azurite/native Cu WATER TABLE ENRICHED ZONE - R E D U C I N G - primary sulphides don't break down - "supergene sulphide enrichment" zone - new sulphide minerals - chalcocite/bornite PRIMARY ZONE - unaltered primary minerals
85
Magmatic
Direct crystallisation Carbonatite Pegmatites Cumulate layers Liquidation of sulphur melt Kimberlite
86
Hydrothermal
Present day Porphyry type Submarine - SEDEX Mississippi-Valley type
87
Sedimentary
Direct precipitation Kupferschiefers Placer deposits Laterites Secondary enrichment
88
Liqueation MINERALS
Nickel Copper Iron - sulphides Pyrrhotite and Chalcopyrite
89
Magmatic segregation MINERALS
Iron Chromium Chromite
90
Pegmatites MINERALS
``` Quartz Feldspar Mica Topaz Tourmaline Be, Ce, Cs REE; Li, Nb, Rb, Ta, Th, Sn, W, V, Zr ```
91
Carbonatite MINERALS
Calcite Dolomite Siderite REE Potassium (low silica) Fe, T >> magnetite Zirconium
92
Laterite MINERALS
Kaolinite Hydrated oxides
93
Placer MINERALS
Ilmenite Cassiterite Columbite Zircon Gold Diamond
94
Kupferschiefer MINERALS
Cu Zn Chalcopyrite/Bornite Pb Galena Zn Sphalerite Pt

Environment And Resources (4 decks)

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