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NEURO PHYSIO Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the divisions of the nervous system?

A
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2
Q

What does CNS stand for?

A

CNS stands for Central Nervous System, which includes the brain and spinal cord. It serves as the integrative control center.

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3
Q

What does PNS stand for?

A

PNS stands for Peripheral Nervous System, which consists of cranial nerves and spinal nerves that serve as communication lines between the CNS and the rest of the body.

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4
Q

What are the divisions of the PNS?

A

The PNS has two divisions: the sensory (afferent) division and the motor (efferent) division.

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5
Q

What is the function of the sensory (afferent) division?

A

The sensory division conducts impulses from receptors to the CNS.

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6
Q

What is the function of the motor (efferent) division?

A

The motor division conducts impulses from the CNS to effectors, such as muscles and glands.

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7
Q

What are the divisions of the efferent portion of the PNS?

A

The efferent portion of the PNS is divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system (ANS).

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8
Q

What is the somatic nervous system?

A

The somatic nervous system consists of somatic (voluntary) motor nerve fibers that conduct impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles.

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9
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?

A

The ANS consists of visceral or involuntary motor nerve fibers that conduct impulses from the CNS to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.

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10
Q

What is the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system?

A

The sympathetic division mobilizes body systems during activity.

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11
Q

What is the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system?

A

The parasympathetic division conserves energy and promotes housekeeping functions during rest.

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12
Q

What are the glial cells of the CNS?

A

The glial cells of the CNS include astrocytes, microglial cells, ependymal cells, and oligodendrocytes.

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13
Q

What are the glial cells of the PNS?

A

The glial cells of the PNS include satellite cells and Schwann cells. Small regeneration may occur.

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14
Q

What are the functions of astrocytes?

A

Astrocytes are the most abundant glial cells, develop the blood-brain barrier, and have many functions.

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15
Q

What are the functions of microglial cells?

A

Microglial cells are involved in injury repair and phagocytosis of microorganisms.

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16
Q

What are the functions of ependymal cells?

A

Ependymal cells circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and line the cavities of the brain and spinal column.

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17
Q

What are the functions of oligodendrocytes?

A

Oligodendrocytes are responsible for processing and wrapping neurons in myelin, forming myelin sheaths.

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18
Q

What are satellite cells?

A

Satellite cells function like astrocytes in the CNS.

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19
Q

What are stem cells in the nervous system?

A

Stem cells are present in utero.

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20
Q

Can neurons be regenerated?

A

No, neurons cannot be regenerated, but changes can occur through the formation of new synapses.

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21
Q

What are Schwann cells?

A

Schwann cells are responsible for the regeneration of damaged peripheral nerves and form myelin sheaths, similar to oligodendrocytes.

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22
Q

How do satellite cells and schwann cells work together?

A

from the myelin sheaths of the PNS

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23
Q

What is a Schwannoma?

A

most common type of benign/slow growing peripheral nerve tumor in adults (can occur anywhere at any age)

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24
Q

How does a schwannoma pathologically develop?

A

Often comes from a single bundle (fascicle) within the main nerve and displaces the rest of the nerve. When a schwannoma grows larger, more fascicles are affected, making removal more difficult.

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25
What is the anatomy of the axon?
Nucleus with the long axon, cell body Dendrites receive impulses Axon hillock makes decisions for cellular impulses.
26
Gray vs white matter
Gray matter (cortex): It is grey because this is where cell bodies are. White matter: This is white because of the myelin on the axons.
27
Microtubules
movement of substances, organelles, neurotransmitters Main mechanism by which many viruses infect by hijacking the system
28
Retrograde transport of viruses and bacterial toxins
can cause damage to neural tissues (ex: rabies, polio, HSV, tetanus)
29
Interneurons pathophysiology
Interneurons sit within the CNS and make decisions on stimulation and organ condition. Almost 99% of neurons within our system are interneurons.
30
Resting membrane potential
of a resting neuron is approximately -70 mV (inside of neuron is negative compared to the outside). This can change and eb and flow based on the movement of ions.
31
What structure maintains cellular ion concentration
Sodium-Potassium pump
32
If we had movement of sodium into the cell and we left our potassium channels alone. What would happen?
Depolarization
33
How does the chemical synapse function?
The vesicles bind from presynaptic to postsynaptic over the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters are released and received
34
Neuron physiology and activation
If there is enough of a stimulus the neuron may reach its firing threshold from its resting state. If this occurs, we can then open up our sodium channels and depolarize very quickly. Soon after, potassium channels will then open and counteract that and the potassium will flow out and the sodium channels will close. So that will cause repolarization.
35
When potassium channels stay open too long, what does that cause?
Hyperpolarization. Meaning we may lose a little bit more positive charge, because the potassium has left and the sodium channels are closed. Eventually, our sodium potassium ATPases get to work and they restore everything back to the resting membrane potential
36
Refractory periods
Absolute refractory: light green, no matter how much the presynaptic neuron wants to restimulate the postsynaptic neuron, firing will not happen again. The prevents overfiring Relative refractory period: repolarization area, with a larger/enough of a stimulus, we can have firing occur again. Greater threshold.
37
Excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potential (EPSP/IPSP)
Even though there is firing of the Presynaptic neuron, That postsynaptic neuron could be receiving both excitatory inhibitory signals. The job of the neuron is to undergo summation.
38
Summation
Meaning summoning of information. There's temporal, spatial
39
Temporal vs spatial summation
Ex: neuron A is continuously stimulated and its up to the post synaptic neuron to make a decision to fire. Temporal summation: is the stimulus strong enough to cause depolarization? REPEATED STIMULI FROM THE SAME NEURON Spatial summation: could be two stimuli, one that is excitatory and one that is inhibitory. Spatial means that there are two neurons, separated by a small space
40
Convergence vs Divergence
Convergence with spatial summation
41
Saltatory conduction
Myelin acts as an insulator where depolarization only has to happen in between. The sodium will flow in and kind of bump the axon to trigger depolarization here. So sodium will flow in and the electrical impulse appears to be skipping here. The depolarization is skipping and that allows it to go really fast. Salt is pushed down the axon to only require action potentials at certain points.
42
Sequence of events at the postsynaptic neuron
Calcium forces the gates to open and allow release of the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. Then the neurotransmitter goes through reuptake or degradation like ach by Acetylcholinesterase. Like serotonin and the use of SSRI medications
43
What are the types of sensory receptors?
44
What are mechanoreceptors responsible for?
Touch, vibration, mechanical pressure
45
What do thermoreceptors detect?
Temperature
46
What is the function of nociceptors?
Detect pain and tissue damage
47
What do photoreceptors consist of?
Rods and cones in our eyes
48
What do chemoreceptors sense?
Taste and smell
49
What do proprioceptors relate to?
Semicircular canals
50
What is visceral pain?
Results from stimulation of visceral organ receptors ## Footnote Example: stomach ache, gas, muscle spasms
51
What is referred pain?
Pain from one body region perceived as coming from a different region ## Footnote Example: Gallbladder referred pain causes pain in the shoulder; MI referred pain causes pain down the left arm.
52
What does the somatic nervous system consist of?
A single neuron between CNS and skeletal muscle cells, innervating skeletal muscle cells.
53
What are spinal reflexes?
Occur without direct involvement of higher brain centers
54
Why is it important to test for somatic reflexes?
To assess the condition of the nervous system.
55
What is the stretch reflex?
Brain sets muscle’s length via stretch reflex, helping maintain muscle tone and posture ## Footnote Example: tapping the patellar tendon
56
What is an example of a stretch reflex?
Knee-jerk reflex elicited via tapping the patellar tendon ## Footnote Quadriceps tendon works with it to help maintain appropriate length.
57
What are superficial reflexes?
Elicited by gentle cutaneous stimulation of an area
58
Why are superficial reflexes clinically important?
Help test for spinal cord lesions specifically on L4-S4
59
What do clinically important reflexes signal?
Problems in upper motor pathways or cord-level reflex arcs
60
What are some of the best-known reflexes?
Plantar (Babinski’s) reflex, abdominal reflex, cremaster reflex
61
What does the abdominal reflex test?
Shuttering of the muscles within the abdomen to test T8-T12.
62
Autonomic nervous system
Has two-neuron chain (connected by a synapse) between CNS and effector organ. Innervates smooth and cardiac muscle, glands, GI, neurons, but not skeletal muscle cells, and can be excitatory or inhibitory
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Most commonly assessed reflexes
Stretch, flexor, and superficial reflexes
64
What is the babinski reflex?
65
Flexor (withdrawal) reflex with crossed-extensor reflex
This allows us to maintain our balance. When we step on a thumbtack we withdraw but we also need coordination of the other leg the extensor portion of that leg to keep us from falling over and keep us up right.
66
Sympathetic Division
thoracolumbar division Ach – preganglionic synapses NE and Epi – postganglionic synapses “fight-or-flight”
67
Parasympathetic Division
craniosacral division ACh at both pre- and postganglionic synapses “rest-or-digest”
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Preganglionic =Presynaptic
Sympathetic: Acetylcholine from the preganglionic neuron interacts with the postganglionic neuron which will then release epi or norepi and then end up working with the adrenal medulla to enter the bloodstream and have sympathetic effects Parasympathetic: Ach is also used in postganglionic neurons for rest and digest functions.
69
What is the role of the oculomotor nerves (III)?
Pupil constriction
70
What is the role of the facial nerves (VII)?
Salivation
71
What is the role of the glossopharyngeal nerves (IX)?
Salivation
72
What is the role of the vagus nerves (X)?
Slow heart rate
73
How does the vagus nerve work parasympathetically?
Accounts for about 90% of all preganglionic parasympathetic fibers in the body. ## Footnote It influences the cardiac plexus to slow heart rate, the pulmonary plexus to slow breathing, and the esophageal plexus.
74
What does the vagus nerve and the esophageal plexus form?
Anterior and posterior vagal trunks that send branches to the stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, and part of the large intestine.
75
Where does the sacral part of parasympathetic innervation originate?
From neurons in S2–S4
76
What does the sacral part of parasympathetic innervation serve?
Pelvic organs and distal half of large intestine.
77
How do axons travel in the sacral part of parasympathetic innervation?
In the ventral root of spinal nerves.
78
What do the axons branch off to form in the sacral part of parasympathetic innervation?
Pelvic splanchnic nerves.
79
Where does the sacral part of the parasympathetic innervation synapse?
Ganglia in the pelvic floor (inferior hypogastric [pelvic] plexus). ## Footnote It stimulates the distal half of the large intestine, urinary bladder, ureters, and reproductive organs.
80
Sympathetic Innervation via the sympathetic trunk
Sympathetic is more complex and innervates more organs than parasympathetic Some structures are innervated only by sympathetic: sweat glands, arrector pili muscle of hair follicle, smooth muscles of all blood vessels. Pupil dilation, widening of bronchi for air, suppression of PS functions. Sympathetic also called thoracolumbar division via the sympathetic trunk. Primarily in the thoracic area
81
What is the main integrative center for the autonomic nervous system?
Hypothalamus
82
ANS is under control of CNS centers in the?
Brainstem, spinal cord, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex
83
How is cerebral input modified?
Cerebral input may modify the autonomic nervous system (ANS) but does so subconsciously.
84
What are the two receptors for acetylcholine (Ach)?
Nicotinic receptors and muscarinic receptors.
85
Where are nicotinic receptors located?
On postganglionic neurons in the autonomic ganglia, at neuromuscular junctions of skeletal muscle, and on some CNS neurons.
86
Where are muscarinic receptors located?
On smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, gland cells, and some CNS neurons.
87
What receptors are found for norepinephrine (norepi) and epinephrine (epi)?
Receptors are found on smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, gland cells, other tissue cells (e.g., adipose, bone, renal tubules), and some CNS neurons.
88
What are the neurotransmitters and general functions of acetylcholine?
Neurotransmitter: Ach. General Functions: Neuromuscular junction, learning, memory, autonomic nervous system.
89
What are the neurotransmitters and general functions of amino acids?
Neurotransmitters: Glutamate, aspartate, GABA, glycine. General Functions: Glutamate/aspartate (major excitatory NT), GABA (major inhibitory NT in brain), glycine (inhibitory in spinal cord).
90
What are the neurotransmitters and general functions of biogenic amines?
Neurotransmitters: Monoamines and histamine. General Functions: Regulate mood, arousal, attention, and autonomic functions.
91
What are the neurotransmitters and general functions of monoamines?
Neurotransmitters: Dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin. General Functions: Dopamine (reward, motivation, movement), norepinephrine (stress, attention), serotonin (mood, sleep).
92
What are the neurotransmitters and general functions of histamine?
Neurotransmitter: Histamine. General Functions: Arousal, wakefulness, allergic response, gastric acid secretion.
93
What are the neurotransmitters and general functions of neuropeptides?
Neurotransmitters: Substance P, endorphins, enkephalins, oxytocin, etc. General Functions: Modulate pain, stress, bonding, social behavior.
94
What are the neurotransmitters and general functions of purines?
Neurotransmitters: ATP, adenosine. General Functions: ATP (neuromodulator), adenosine (promotes sleep, inhibits arousal).
95
What are the neurotransmitters and general functions of gasotransmitters?
Neurotransmitters: Nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO). General Functions: Modulate blood flow, synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory.
96
What are the neurotransmitters and general functions of endocannabinoids?
Neurotransmitters: Anandamide (AEA), 2-AG (2-arachidonoylglycerol). General Functions: Regulate appetite, pain, mood, memory, and immune function; act via retrograde signaling.
97
What is the function of nicotinic receptors?
Nicotinic receptors are excitatory (always).
98
What is the function of muscarinic receptors?
Muscarinic receptors cause excitation in most cases, but can inhibit cardiac smooth muscle.
99
What types of adrenergic receptors are there?
Alpha and beta receptors.
100
What are A1 alpha receptors primarily associated with?
Blood vessels of the skin and almost all organs with sympathetic response.
101
What are A2 alpha receptors primarily associated with?
GI, adrenals (inhibition), and pancreas.
102
What is the primary function of B1 beta receptors?
Mostly associated with the heart to increase heart rate.
103
What is the primary function of B2 beta receptors?
Associated with the lungs for bronchodilation.
104
What are B3 beta receptors primarily associated with?
Adipose tissue.
105
Adrenergic receptors

A + P II (18 decks)

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