Neuropsychology Flashcards
define behaviour
anything that a living creature does in reaction to some kind of environmental stimulation
define neuroscience
study of nervous system
What does the nervous system consist of?
brain, spinal chord, sensory/motor neurons
what are the four approaches to behavioural neuroscience?
functional, developmental, anatomically, medical
What is the Cardiocentric model and what time period was this theorised
during the heart vs head debate in the Egyptian times. the model says that the heart is the key organ of the body.
What were the revelations from the 5th century BC Hippocratic revolution by Alcmaeon and by Hippocrates?
Alcmaeon- the brain as the site of sensation and thought
Hippocrates- the brain is the controlling organ of the body
Explain the triune soul (Plate 428-348BC)
three parts to the soul which are the brain, the heart and the gut. The brain represents intellect, the heart represents anger and pride. The gut represents greed and desire. The intellectual soul was believed to be immortal.
Describe Aristotle’s (348-322 BC) reasoning for the purpose of the brain
he stated that the brain is not responsible for any sensations at all. The brain exists as cooling system to cool down the heat of the heart in order to have more rational thoughts
Why was Galen (130-200AD) known as the most influential physician of the roman empire?
his research relied on dissecting animals. He was the first to number cranial nerves and suggest them for motor and sensory functions. He deciphered the basic comments of intellect as being imagination/perception, cognition, and memory
Explain the Ventricular Doctrine (390AD) by Bishop Doctrine
suggested ventricles as homes of three components. Anterior ventricle for perception, middle ventricles for cognition, and posterior ventricles for memory. This was supported by research where a damage to a specific region equates to a loss of that function.
During what time period was the Ventricular Doctrine rejected?
the renaissance by Andreas Vesalius who was able to study human bodies in Padua.
What is the localisation in the spinal chord?
the spinal chord has two types of nerves emerging. The dorsal carries sensory information to the spinal chord. The ventral carries motor signals to muscles in order to produce movement
What is the Bell-Magendie Law (Bell and Magendie)
The anterior nerves contain only motor fibres. The posterior roots contain only sensory fibres.
Describe the extreme theory of localization (Franz Gall, 1758-1828)
regions of the brain relate to specific functions and traits. The greater the skill, the larger area in the brain. Greater development in the brain is portrayed by a matching development in the skull
What is the theory of phrenology?
the more spiritual the trait, the higher it is placed on the skull. e.g. destructiveness indicated by development above the ear, acquisitiveness indicated on the upper front of the squamous structure
How is phrenology still present in modern days?
can be found in modern phrases e.g. highbrow vs lowbrow
Describe Cortical equivalence (Marie-Jean-Pierre Flourens 1794-1867)
The cortex functions as a whole. All parts are responsible for intelligence, will, and perception. During animal studies subjects were able to recover abilities after destruction of cortical areas.
In what case was there a shift towards localisation?
Paul Broca had patient Tan in 1861. The patient suffered damage to the left inferior frontal cortex. His language understanding remained functioning however his language production was impaired. This was used to then prove that the proposed site did not fit with phrenological theories
What injury did Phineas Gage endure in 1848?
Phineas Gage was a railroad construction foreman who suffered a blasting accident in 1848. An iron rod shot through his skull and obliterated the greater part of the left frontal lobe.
How did Phineas Gage’s personality change following his injury?
Pre injury he was described as responsible, intelligent, and social. Following his injury there were dramatic changes in his personality and he was described as unreliable, disrespectful, and irresponsible.
What did the case of Phineas Gage provide evidence for?
The case provided evidence for localisation of function due to it being an index case for personality change due to frontal lobe damage.
What is Cytoarchitecture?
cellular architecture of the brain (Theodor Meynert 1833-1892)
What did the Nissl Method (Franz Nissl 1860-1919) allow scientists to do?
The Nissl Method involved staining cell bodies to highlight structures. This allowed for the examination of internal structures
What did Camillo Golgi’s use of silver nitrate solution allow him to inspect?
visualisation of axon, dendrite, and length of neuron
Describe the Neuron Doctrine (Santiago Ramon y Cajal, 1852-1934)
nerve cells are individual structures with no physical connection between them. and later in 1906- the brain is made of individual units specialised depending on function. They are connected by synapses which each release one type of transmitter
What are the most recent beliefs regarding localisation?
brain regions can be related to specific behaviours however no part of the brain is isolated and there are vast interconnections between the regions and structures. no previous extreme views suit what we observe today
Name three recent biological psychology ideas:
lateralisation of functions, neuroplasticity, neuroethics
Describe what is meant by ‘laterisation of functions’
localisations of certain functions to left or right hemisphere. language is to the left hemisphere and face recognition to the right. emotions are also localised to the right
What is the modern day conclusion to the left vs right brain debate?
‘left vs right brained’ is a myth. functions are not as strictly allocated and parts of the brain are interconnected
What are Tinbergen’s four categories of explanations for behaviour?
Functional mechanism, physiological mechanism, ontogenetic mechanism, evolutionary mechanism
What question does the functional mechanism propose?
Why are they doing it now
What question does the physiological mechanism propose?
how are they doing it
What question does the ontogenetic mechanism propose?
how does this behaviour develop over the lifetime of an individual (Nature vs nurture)
What question does the evolutionary mechanism propose?
why did the behaviour originally develop
The key behavioural neuroscience question is:
what causes it to happen?
What evidence did Peleg et al 2006 provide for the genetic influence of facial expressions?
in his study he found similarity in facial expressions between sighted and congeniality blind family member
Explain Pavlov 1987 example of nurture using dogs?
Dogs respond with salivation to a food stimulus. Initially, a sound stimulus would not cause the dog to produce any salivation. Combining sound to mean food and therefore salivation, dogs were able to produce salivation in response to a sound stimulus.
When studying the rh-5HTTLPR gene among two groups of monkeys (Barr et al 2005)- monkeys raised by their mothers, and monkeys raised on their own- how did the groups of monkeys respond to a stressful situation?
there were different responses to stress hormone release within both groups.
What did Barr et al 2005 gene-environment interaction provide evidence towards?
this suggested that both a genetic predisposition to a disorder as well as the environment play a part in determining if one will have a disorder or not
Bluetits originally used their beaks to forage and find food. At a point, they begam to use the functions of their beaks to open milk cartons on doorsteps. What is this an example of?
This is a functional mechanism where behaviours lose their original purpose (food, shelter, reproductive stress) and can now be used for a different reason in a current environment (or are simply no longer useful)
What is an example of evolutionary mechanisms in humans?
goosebumps. goosebumps were originally produced in humans for defence and thermal radiation. humans now have no need for goosebumps however they still persist.
Analyse infant crying behaviour using Tinbergen’s four questions:
-Physiological (how are they doing it): internal physiological regulation due to the CNS maturing
-Ontogenetic (how did it develop over the lifetime of an individual): initially due to internal changes as an infant grows. developed to become more directed e.g. when a caregiver is near
-Evolutionary (why did the behaviour originally develop): communication to caregivers which worked over distances and when visual light was low
-Functional (why are they doing it now): signalling to caregivers to indicate infants particular needs
the key behavioural psychology question is:
how does a certain behaviour relate to activity in the brain? the relationship between biological and psychological processes. we manipulate a biological process and see what effect it has on a psychological measure
What is the question proposed in neuropsychology?
which behaviours and mental processes change when a particular area has been damaged?
What is the question proposed in psychopharmacology?
which behaviour and mental processes are affected by drugs that change chemical processes in the brain?
What is the question proposed in psychophysiology?
what physiological changes (e.g. heart rate, blood pressure) occur when a behaviour/mental process is carried out?
What is the question proposed in neuroimaging?
which brain areas show changes in activity when a behaviour or mental process is carried out?
What are the three factors analysed in methods of neuroimaging?
temporal resolution (ability to record activity over time), spatial resolution (ability to indicate location of activity), and invasive/non-invasive
Explain the method of single cell recording and analyse the procedure:
a microelectrode is inserted into the brain to record changes in voltage or current in individual cells.
Temporal resolution: wide, ranging from ms to hours
Spatial resolution: limited to one cell
Invasive technique
Analyse the method of Electroencephalography (EEG):
EEG measures electrical activity at scalp surface, studies expose the brain to repeated stimulus to identify the responses to a particular stimulus. This is often used for studies of language. The procedure is non invasive with good temporal resolution. However, the spatial resolution is low. This can help to diagnose conditions such as epilepsy and sleep disorders.
Analyse the method of Magneto-encephalography (MEG):
MEG measures the magnetic fields produced by brain activity at the skull. The procedure is non invasive with excellent temporal resolution. Spatial resolutions are better compared to EEG because magnetic fields are not distorted by the skull. The procedure can be used to plan brain surgeries such as removing tumours.
Analyse the method of Positron Emission Tomography (PET):
PET detects regions of brain activities by tracking emissions from radioactive substances. The procedure has reasonable spatial resolution however it is an invasive procedure (via injection) and the temporal resolution is low as it can only record activities over 60 seconds. This can be used to detect cancer and brain conditions.
Analyse the method of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging:
FMRI detect functionally induced changes in blood flow oxygenation to the brain. This is indirect as it only looks at flood flow and not neural activity. The procedure is non invasive and has excellent spatial resolution, but poor temporal resolution as it tracks over several seconds. FMRI can effects of strokes and other diseases.
FMRI, PET, MEG, EEG, TMS and Single Cell Recordings are all techniques of what?
Functional neuroimaging. They compare brain activity in different conditions to a baseline condition.
How did dead salmon prove errors in functional neuroimaging techniques?
dead salmon from the Atlantic ocean were taken from the fishmongers. they were placed in a FMRI lab and made to observe emotional faces. The lab found reasons of activation. This showed a possibility for error in functional neuroimaging techniques.
Why has neuroimaging been referred to as ‘the new phrenology’?
There is an assumption that the area that lights up is responsible for the function. This is untrue because imaging does not indicate a casual link. There is strong evidence for methodological convergence which cross references findings across methods.
Analyse the method of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS):
TMS stimulates temporary lesions, the magnetic pulse of the current is used to temporarily inhibit processing in that area. This examines where inhibiting a region interferes with a particular task. The procedure has poor temporal resolution which is not fully known. The spatial resolution is poor because the area affected by TMS is fairly large. TMS therapy can be used to treat depression, OCD and other brain related conditions.
What do lesion studies observe?
Lesion studies observe patients following brain damage. They observe what tasks they are able and unable to do
Why is spatial resolution low in lesion studies?
Typically, lesions are widely spread and so spatial resolution is low because it is difficult to determine where boundaries are
Why is temporal resolution inconsistent across lesion studies?
Procedures allow for the assessment of long term damage however patients may have been able to develop coping strategies making it harder to determine the exact effects of the lesion.
Why are animals used in neuroscience studies?
animals are used to understand the basic processes underlying human behaviour which is similar to the processes underlying animal behaviour
What can animal studies hope to achieve?
methods to treat or prevent conditions such as Alzheimer’s, AIDS, and Strokes
What are the 3R’s and what do they advise in an attempt to find replacements to animal testing?
-Replacement: for example using chip skin to replicate organs, or using human volunteers
-Refinement: using less invasive techniques and providing better care and better living conditions for the animals.
-Reduction: improving experimental techniques and techniques of data analysis, and encouraging open science where researchers share their findings.
How do the presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron work together?
the presynaptic neuron sends the signal and the post synaptic neuron receives the signal.
What are the two communication types between neurons?
electrical and chemical
What is the process of electrical signalling?
The pre and post synapse are linked at a gap junction. There is a fast direct passive flow from one neuron to another. Ions diffuse through channels containing the action potential. The post synaptic neuron can start to signal within ms of receiving the input from the pre synaptic neuron
How does electrical signalling allow for synchronisation of signals?
brainstem neurons regulate breathing
What is the process of chemical signalling?
there is no link between neurons across synapses. neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic cell and diffuse across the gap binding to receptors on the post synaptic cell membrane. the neurotransmitter either excites or inhibits the receiving neuron
What are the key differences between electrical and chemical signalling?
in chemical signalling there is no link between neurons across synapses, in electrical signalling the pre and post synapses are linked at a gap junction. Chemical signalling is a slower transmission and is far more common than electrical signalling.
what is required for a substance to be a neurotransmitter?
the substance must be in a pre synaptic terminal stored in a vesicle. it must be released in response to an action potential arriving at the terminal and receptors on the post synaptic cell must be able to bind to it
What are the key differences between Small molecule chemical processes, and neuropeptide chemical processes?
In the small molecules the enzymes are synthesised in the cell body. However, in the neuropeptides most processes happen in the cell body including enzyme synthesis and enzyme packaging into vesicles.
How do small molecules and neuropeptides differ in their response to frequency stimulations?
In high frequency stimuli there is more distributed release of Ca2+ and both types of neurotransmitters will release. In low frequency stimuli there is only a localised increase in Ca2+ and only the small molecule neurotransmitters will be released.
What is the release of neurotransmitters triggered by?
the release is triggered by the arrival of an action potential at the presynaptic terminal. vesicle packages merge with the synapse membrane and the contents are released into the cleft
How does the neurotransmitter bind to the post synaptic receptors in ionotropic signalling?
the neurotransmitter binds to the ion channel. the channel opens and the ions flow across to the post synaptic cell where an action potential is triggered
How does the neurotransmitter bind to post synaptic receptors in metabotropic signalling?
neurotransmitters bind to a receptor protein. The receptor activates the attached G-proteins which detaches and can dock onto an effector protein. The effector protein triggers the opening of an ion channel.
Out of ionotropic signalling and metabotropic signalling, which is quicker?
Ionotropic signalling is faster. Metabotropic signalling goes into effect 30ms after release.
what happens to neurotransmitters to end the signalling?
the neurotransmitter detaches from the receptor. It is transported back to the presynaptic neuron for reuptake or it is broken down by enzymes in the synaptic cleft where by-products are recycled.
What are the three stages of chemical signalling?
1) Synthesis and storage of the neurotransmitters
2)Binding of neurotransmitters to post synaptic receptors
3)Deactivation of neurotransmitters to end the signalling
