NMSK Flashcards

Question

What are the 3 parts of the bone in terms of sections? and which regions are these?

Answer 1

Epiphysis - rounded end Metaphysis - flared region Diaphysis - shaft Metaphysis is adjacent to epiphysis

Answer 2

Cortical (compact) bone and cancellous (trabecular spongy) bone

Answer 3

These are bony formations in soft tissue rather than being part of the skeleton like the os penis bone and os cordis (in the heart of ruminants). os means bone in latin.

Answer 4

Axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton Axial skeleton - bones forming the axis or centre of the animal Appendicular skeleton - regions that are attached.

Answer 5

chondral ossification and membranous ossification chondral ossification - bones ossify from a cartilage precursor (most limb bones) Membranous ossification - bones ossify directly from mesenchymal cells (scapula, most bones of the skull)

Answer 6

Chondral ossification - found in load bearing areas. Often have specific fail/ fracture configuration. Membranous ossification - found in non-load bearing areas. These bones are generally lighter and less dense.

Answer 7

long b - inc femur, tibia and fibula short b - inc tarsals and carpals flat b - protect internal organs or provide a connection point for your muscles sesamoid b - small, round bones that are embedded within tendons or ligaments irregular b - unique shapes and can't be classed as the others such as vertebrae pneumatic b - for reducing weight in birds

Answer 8

Long bones. - Main part of bone is a column providing strength -expanded ends providing transfer of load

Answer 9

short bones. They are found in groups to disseminate forces through joints One surface is always non-articular for ligament attachment and vasculature

Answer 10

Irregular bones have various jutting processes for muscle and ligament attachment.

Answer 11

flat bones

Answer 12

pneumatic bones Flat bones of the skull- form the paranasal sinuses.

Answer 13

provide additional strength and reduce wear over joints. Protect and redirect tendons. They are held in place by surrounding tendons or ligaments (patella, fetlock, navicular bone).

Answer 14

Periosteum. supplies bones with blood, nerves and cells that help them grow and heal.

Answer 15

Compact (cortical) bone. It is made up of concentric bone arranged around a central osteon

Answer 16

provide strength and support to the bone, and help in repair and remodelling of bone tissue.

Answer 17

Light and porous, honeycomb like structure. The bone matrix is organised into 3-dimensional latticework of bony processes called trabeculae, arranged along lines of stress. The spaces between are often filled with marrow and blood vessels.

Answer 18

- provides strength and support to the overlying bony cortex whilst minimising weight - vital reservoir for developing red blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells usually surrounded by a shell of compact bone which provides greater strength and rigidity, enables the bone to dampen sudden stress.

Answer 19

A hollow central space found within the shaft (diaysis) of long bones. Its walls are formed by a thin layer of spongy bone which is surrounded by a thick layer of compact bone. The medullar cavity is lined with a thin vascular membrane called the endosteum and contains bone marrow.

Answer 20

contains bone marrow, which produces blood cells and stores fats and minerals

Answer 21

A haversian canal surrounds blood vessels and nerve cells throughout bones and communicates with osteocytes through connections called lacunae.

Answer 22

Epithelial tissue Nervous tissue connective tissue (inc blood tissue) muscle (contractile) tissue

Answer 23

Nerve cells (neurones) + neurological cells. CNS astrocytes (star-shaped) - provide structural and metabolic support to neuron, blood-brain barrier maintenance, regulate neurotransmitter levels, aid in brain and spinal cord repair after injury, regulate blood flow to active brain regions oligodendrocytes - produce + maintain the myelin sheath, provide metabolic + structural support to neurons (particularly axons), regulate of ion movement around axons for optimal signal transmission microglial cells - primary immune cells in CNS, phagocytosis, inflammatory response (release cytokines and signalling molecules to mediate inflammation), synaptic remodelling (during development and in response to neural activity), maintenance (monitor the health of neurons and the CNS environment, maintaining homeostasis) ependymal cells (line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord) - Producing CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) which cushions the brain and the spinal cord, circulating CSF, create a selectively permeable barrier the CSF and brain tissue, neural stem activity (some ependymal cells have stem-like properties, contributing to neurogenesis (the formation of new neurons) in certain conditions. PNS Satellite cells - found in the ganglia of the PNS, surrounding the neuronal cell bodies. Function: provide structural and metabolic support to neurons, regulate microenvironment (nutrients, ions and neurotransmitters), involved in chronic pain signalling by interacting with sensory neurons, potential role in neural regeneration. Schwann cells - found in the PNS, wrapping around axons (nerve fibres) . Function: form the myelin sheath, provide support and protection for unmyelinated fibres, help guide axon regrowth through Wallerian degeneration, play a role in nerve inflammation and repair.

Answer 24

- mechanical and structural support - supports and connects the various parts of the body by 3-dimensional frameworks called stroma - separate tissues and organs Originates from cells of the mesodermal layer of the embryo

Answer 25

Composed of loosely arranged collagen and elastic fibres embedded in a gel-like matrix called ground substance. Its flexibility allows for movement and stretching without comprising the integrity of neighbouring tissues. It also plays an important role in the immune system as it houses immune cells that fight against infections and foreign particles. Additionally, it facilitates the diffusion of nutrients, gases and waste products between blood vessels and surrounding tissues. This type of tissue forms a network that surrounds and supports blood vessels, nerves and organs.

Answer 26

Regular and irregular dense connective tissue. Dense connective tissue is a type of connective tissue primarily composed of type 1 collagen fibres. Fewer cells and less ground substance compared to loose connective tissue. Regular - fibres are arranged in a parallel and organized pattern - Mainly composed of collagen fibres, with some fibroblasts (cells that produce the collagen and other fibres) - provides strength, flexible support from one direction- Found in tendons and ligaments Irregular - fibres are arranged in a more random, less organized pattern - Similar composition to regular dense connective tissue - provides strength in multiple directions as opposed to one - Found in areas that require support and flexibility from various angles, such as the dermis of the skin and the fibrous capsules around organs and joints.

Answer 27

loose connective tissue, dense connective tissue, cartilage, bone and blood.

Answer 28

3 types of cartilage: hyaline, elastic and fibro. Cartilage is made up of the following components specialised cells called chondrocytes and chondroblasts, ECM (which includes glycosaminoglycans (hydrophilic and ideal for attracting water, which contributes to the gel-like consistency of the extracellular matrix (ECM)), proteoglycans (Proteoglycans are proteins covalently linked to GAGs (except hyaluronic acid). They function in hydration, cushioning, and structural support of the ECM) and water) - Hyaline - smooth, glossy appearance due to fine collagen fibres that are not easily visible under a microscope. - provides smooth surfaces for joint movement, flexibility and support - found in the nose, trachea, larynx, ends of long bones (Articular cartilage) and the fetal skeleton - Elastic - contains a high number of elastic fibres in addition to collagen fibres, making it more flexible and resilient. - maintains the shape of structures while providing flexibility - found in the ear (auricle), the epiglottis (part of the larynx), and the eustachian tubes - Fibro - contains thick bundles of collagen fibres, making it very strong and able to withstand heavy pressure - provides strong support and withstands compression - found in the intervertebral discs, the menisci (knee), and the pubic symphysis (joint between the two pelvic bones)

Answer 29

lamellar bone and trabecular bone - Lamellar- type of mature bone characterised by its organized structure, consisting of parallel layers or lamellae of collagen fibres. - makes up the compact bones in the skeleton, such as the long bones of the legs and arms. replaces woven bone during the process of bone remodelling, ensuring the strength and integrity of the skeletal system. - Trabecular bone- Lighter less dense type of bone found within the interior of bones. It has a porous, honeycomb like structure composed of trabeculae, which are thin rods and plates of bones that form a meshwork - Found at the end of long bones and in the vertebrae. Like at the ends of the femur - Network of spongy bones acts as a shock absorber cushioning the impact forces during locomotion.

Answer 30

Blood (fluid connective tissue) - Made up of red and white blood cells., plasma and platelets.- Located within your bones, bone marrow. - transportation of substances into and out of the body, regulation of internal body temperature, involved in the immune response

Answer 31

LCT has fewer fibres (still has collagen and elastin), more cells and ground substance, less rigid and more easily distorted (still provides resistance when stretched creating a tough barrier).

Answer 32

produces a matrix in cartilage (ECM) which is made up of type 2 collagen, glycoproteins and water. They synthesize GAG, elastin and collagen to provide cartilage with strength, flexibility, and resilience, regulation of cartilage during embryonic development and postnatal growth, response to mechanical stress.

Answer 33

calcium phosphate

Answer 34

Approximately 55% plasma, 45% erythrocytes (red blood cells), 1% leukocytes (white blood cells) and thrombocytes (platelets)

Answer 35

separated by abundant ECM.

Answer 36

cells, collagen fibres and ground substances (special proteins).

Answer 37

Cartilage= chondrocytes Bone= Osteoblasts/osteocytes/osteoclasts Muscle= myocytes Tendons= tenocytes (elongated fibrocytes) Osteoclasts ae derived from monocytes ( a white blood cell (WBC) linage)

Answer 38

ECM consists of collagen (several types, type 1 most common) and elastin fibres, ground substance and water. It gives connective tissue its morphological and functional characteristics. Provides structural support of cells, also guides their division, growth and development. - blasts - cytes and - clasts. - blasts create matrix - cytes maintain matrix (control activity of blasts and clasts) - clasts break down matrix for remodelling

Answer 39

Structure - Fibrous ECM is composed mainly of fibrous proteins like collagen, elastin and fibronectin. These proteins form a dense, mesh-like network. - Liquid ECM is found in fluids like blood plasma. It contains a mix of soluble proteins, electrolytes, and other molecules. Function - Fibrous ECM provides structural support and tensile strength to tissues. It's crucial in areas that experience high mechanical stress, such as tendons, ligaments and skin. - Liquid ECM facilitates the transport of nutrients, waste products, and signalling molecules throughout the body. It also helps maintain homeostasis and providing a medium for cellular communication. Properties - Fibrous ECM is highly rigid and strong, capable of withstanding stretching and pressure. It also plays a role in cell adhesion, migration and differentiation. Liquid ECM is more fluid and less structured compared to fibrous ECM. It allows for easy movement and flow of its components.

Answer 40

The mesoderm (middle layer)

Answer 41

In the umbilical cord. Features: hydrophilic ECM, jelly-like, also known as mucoid connective tissue or Wharton's jelly.

Answer 42

Connective tissue is a form of connective tissue with reticular fibres (collagen type III) as the main component. It contains reticular and elastic fibres that are the main element in irregular connective tissues. Reticular fibres form the stroma of the lymphoid system (lymph nodes and spleen). Elastic fibres line intervertebral discs and the wall of the aorta.

Answer 43

Brown adipose tissue - involved in heat control (insulation) White adipose tissue - energy storage Structure: little ECM surrounding cells, cells full of lipid Function: packaging, protection, insulation

Answer 44

Before you start accessing locomotion. Consider: - Space availability - Surface conditions (firm, level, non-slip) firm surface allows you to access muscular, soft surface: soft tissue and allowing you to listen to footfalls - Age of animal - Any medical conditions - Handler Speed of gait

Answer 45

- Visual observations - Locomotion analysis equipment (high speed treadmills, video cameras, data analysis software, force plates) Assess quality and divergence from the norm

Answer 46

A stride is a complete cycle of movement. E.G. from the setting down of a foot to the next setting down of the same foot 2 phases - stance phase (weight bearing limb) - swing phase (non-weight bearing limb)

Answer 47

4 beat. RH-RF-LH-LF

Answer 48

2 beat LH+RF then LF+RH

Answer 49

3 beat RH,RF+LH,LF or LH,LF+RH,RF

Answer 50

fast 4 beat Transverse gallop Horses, cattle, deer, dogs at low speed, LH,RH,LF,RF, suspension phase Rotatory gallop Dogs at high speed, cheetahs, gazelle, running rodents RH,LH suspension phase ,LF,RF, suspension phase Counter-rotatory is opposite of rotatory gallop - greyhounds on the track

Answer 51

vision vestibular system - balance mechanoreceptors - touch nociceptors - pain proprioceptors - body position

Answer 52

Nervous system: voluntary and involuntary control, reflexes central pattern generators: generate rhythmic motor patterns (Inc respiration). Responsible for producing gaits: walk, trot, canter etc.. Brainstem - The brainstem plays a crucial role in limb coordination by acting as a relay centre for many essential motor functions. It integrates and processes signals between the brain and the spinal cord to facilitate smooth, coordinated movements of the limbs. Cerebellum - balance (continuously processing information related to body position, movement, and coordination) Constant monitoring of muscle length and tension (muscle spindles and golgi tendon organs)

Answer 53

- increased stride length: elongation of distal limb, mobile scapula, increase length of limb, whiplash effect - small motion upper limb > flick of lower limb - minimise mass of limb: most work done by animal during locomotion involves accelerating and decelerating limbs, muscles positioned proximally (near pivot-point), reduced number of bones in limb, adaptations to lower mass (inertia) of lower limb - conservation of energy: whiplash effect of limb, long tendons (transfer load, shock absorbers, energy store), stable joints - relatively rigid spine/sacroiliac junction: large gut, large body mass, transfer of energy from powerful hind quarters, minimise up-and-down movements of body during locomotion (conserves energy)

Answer 54

- Elongation of limbs with mass being proximal -digitigrade: need claws for catching prey, claws may assist with grip - flexible back: arches & straightens over wide range - increases stride length - tail: assists with balance when out-of-balance

Answer 55

- low safety margins: bones and tendons (fractures and tendon strains) - little soft-tissue cover of distal limbs (poor wound/fracture healing) - little soft tissue to absorb impact loads (joint injuries/osteoarthiritis)

Answer 56

physiological components and behavioural components

Answer 57

look at dog muscle labelled answer

Answer 58

Initial set up of a microscope 1. Turn on the light and increase the brightness to give a white light output. 2. Rotate the objective Lense to the lowest setting x4 3. Place the side on the stage using the retaining mechanism to hold it in place. Raise or lower the stage to bring the image into focus. 4. Set the eyepieces to the correct width for your eyes so you can look down both together comfortably. Move the, in and out as if you are holding a pair of binoculars and try to create a single round image.

Answer 59

1. Check that the lowest power objective lense is in place 2. Close the lamp iris on the base of the microscope (where the light comes up) until the edges of the iris appear on the field of vision. 3. Focus the iris by adjusting up and down the substage condenser until the light gives a sharp-edged hexagon shape, which should be in the centre of the stage. 4. Open the lamp iris on the base of the microscope until the iris edges just disappear from your field of view Adjust the condenser aperture to produce the best image

Answer 60

Objectives required Parasites x4 Urine x10-x40 Cellular material/microbes x10 up to x100 (Oil immersion)

Answer 61

Resolution is the ability of a microscope to distinguish detail. Magnification is the ability of a microscope to produce an image of an object at a scale larger than its actual size.

Answer 62

Structural (supports the body), Protection of vital organs, locomotion, mineral reservoir

Answer 63

organic matrix (osteoid), inorganic matrix, cells (osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts), vascular spaces

Answer 64

Osteoid is a ground substance in which numerous collagen fibres are embedded. It is synthesised by osteoblasts and secreted onto existing bone surface.

Answer 65

collagen type 1 - important structural component around 90% glycoproteins - binds collagen and minerals proteoglycans - bind growth factors bone sialoproteins - associated with cell adhesion

Answer 66

Bone minerals 60-70% dry weight. Confer hardness and rigidity. Make bone radio-opaque. Composed largely of crystals: hydroxyapatite, carbonate, calcium phosphate

Answer 67

Mineralisation (process at which the sites of newly formed organic bone matrix (osteoid) becomes filled with minerals) commences as soon as osteoid secreted. Reaches 70-80% final in 3 weeks. Takes years to complete.

Answer 68

Woven bone - haphazard collagen. quick and dirty formation: young growing animal, fracture repair, etc. mineralises quickly. crossed fibres Lamellar bone (parallel fibre bone) - thin layers of osteoid within which collagen fibres are parallel. Structurally superior. Collagen fibres deposited in different organizational structures.

Answer 69

Woven bone normally mature to stronger lamellar bone.

Answer 70

Osteoid is the unmineralized organic portion of the bone matrix, whereas an osteon is the structural unit of compact bone. Osteons are the method to take the blood vessels through the bone.

Answer 71

Primary osteons are formations characteristics of mature bone. Secondary osteons are formed by replacement of existing bone. These appear differently as osteoclasts when remodelling bone cells first resorb or eat away a section of bone in a tunnel called a cutting bone.

Answer 72

Osteonal bone is bone tissue that contains blood vessels surrounded by concentric rings of bone tissue.

Answer 73

Fibrolamellar bone is an impermanent primary bone tissue found in fast growing juvenile mammals. Consists of woven bone interspersed with lamellar bone. It is highly vascular and contains many primary osteons and blood vessels, allowing for rapid bone deposition and growth. Provides strength and flexibility

Answer 74

Primary osteons are formed during appositional bone growth, when the bone increases in diameter. They run parallel to the long axis of the bone, contain one or more vascular canals and are always surrounded by woven bones.

Answer 75

the cement line

Answer 76

- haversian canal in the centre (containing blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves) - osteocytes in lacuna - canaliculi containing cytoplasmic processes of osteocytes - cement line

Answer 77

by coordinated action of osteoclasts and osteoblasts

Answer 78

derived from mesenchymal stem cells synthesise and secrete osteoid active in mineralisation process

Answer 79

Found within the lacunae. They communicate with each other and with other bone cells through canaliculi. In charge of bone remodelling they control osteoblasts and osteoclasts.

Answer 80

- responsible for bone resorption, release protons creates acid environment causing demineralisation. Also secretes proteases which destroy organic matrix - large cells, multiple nuclei - derived from bone matrix

Answer 81

1. Osteoclasts destroy/remove some of the bone 2. Osteoblasts then secrete osteoid and concentric lamellae forms making walls of lamellar bone surrounding a blood vessels 3. Secondary osteon is created

Answer 82

Woven bone always come in first for the healing process but then you hope that it will develop to a lamellar bone.

Answer 83

Stress fracture defines a syndrome involving localised bone injury associated with fatigue damage subsequent to repetitive loading.

Answer 84

percentage of elongation

Answer 85

force per unit area

Answer 86

point where structure no longer returns to original shape

Answer 87

Plastic region = structure deformed and moving towards failure

Answer 88

They cause microdamage: Structural damage of various levels, cell death and vascular disruption.

Answer 89

Remodelling causes increased porosity (empty spaces in a material). Then high strains causes microdamage then the cycle repeats till failure.

Answer 90

Cartilage is more pliable than bone. It is found in joints as its function is to provide flexible interface between bones and smooth bearing surface. Flexible support in outer ear, sternum, larynx, cartilage rings of trachea etc.

Answer 91

interstitial growth (internal expansion)

Answer 92

Collagen fibers – Mainly Type II collagen, which provides tensile strength and structure. Proteoglycans – Large molecules like aggrecan, which attract water and help maintain cartilage’s gel-like consistency for shock absorption. Hyaluronic acid – A glycosaminoglycan that forms complexes with proteoglycans to retain water and provide resilience. Glycoproteins – Such as chondronectin, which help anchor chondrocytes to the matrix. Water – Makes up 60-80% of cartilage, aiding in resilience and load distribution.

Answer 93

Mechanically unique, hydrated and slippery connective tissue that covers the ends of bones in synovial joints. It is designed to: withstand and distribute load, act as an elastic shock absorber, provide a wear resistant surface to articulating joints self maintaining -avascular -aneural -alymphatic implications for disease and repair

Answer 94

articular/hyaline, fibrocartilage, elastic

Answer 95

white Specialised cartilage in areas requiring tough support or great tensile strength, lines surface of bony grooves for tendon, interface ligament/tendon and bone It contains more collagen vs hyaline cartilage contains type 1 and 2 collagen, lacks a perichondrium (dense layer of connective tissue that surrounds most types of cartilage accept articular and fibrocartilage)

Answer 96

yellow. Found in the pinna of the ear and several tubes. It keeps tubes permanently open, similar to hyaline but contains elastin scattered through the matrix

Answer 97

Chondrocytes are the only cells found in cartilage. Produce and maintain the cartilage matrix. Exist in low density. Must obtain nutrition and O2 by diffusion (cartilage avascular). Chondrocytes continue secreting new matrix when embedded in matrix causing internal expansion (interstitial growth). Chondrocytes are capable of division within matrix.

Answer 98

Membranous - bones ossify* from mesenchymal cells (scapula, scull bones), found in areas of high load bearing, have fail/fracture configurations that are clean Chondral - bones ossify* from cartilage precursor (most limb bones), found in non-load bearing areas, fracture configuration looks like shattering *ossify means to change into bone or bony tissue

Answer 99

Long (eg. humorous) Short (eg. carpal bones) Flat (to protect or attach to soft tissue) Sesamoid (provide strength and reduce tendon wear on bone/joints) Irregular (for muscle and ligament attachment) Pneumatic (contain air space)

Answer 100

Vessel-rich, bone producing* membrane that covers all of a bone except region with articular cartilage. *Supply blood to the bone which is required for development and remodelling Membrane that lines the marrow cavity and lays down bone, supplied by the nutrient artery

Answer 101

Solid concentric bone arranged around a central osteon. It provides structural support and protection to the bodies bones. Bony trabecular (little beams) with spaces filled with red bone marrow. It provides structural support against stress and flex whilst staying light.

Answer 102

Hollow bone filled with red and yellow bone marrow. red marrow makes blood cells and the yellow marrow stores fat and minerals.

Answer 103

Vessels in the periosteum supply the blood for the bones via. the nutrient arteries which carry the blood from the vessels to the endosteum.

Answer 104

Allows a wide range of movement in joints Elevation/raise irregularity in bone that acts as an attachment site for muscles and ligaments Depressed irregularity in bone that acts as an attachment sight for muscles and ligaments Condyles - Provide structural support to bone joints Epicondyles - Allows the attachment of ligaments and tendons

Answer 105

Water, Glycoproteins, Proteoglycans, Bone sialoproteins

Answer 106

Rigid Hard/Brittle Cannot expand from within/Limited growth

Answer 107

Is replaced with lamellar bone (not always the case, why some fracture sites are always weaker)

Answer 108

Woven bone (haphazard) - used for growing bone or fracture repair so mineralises quickly Lamellar bone (parallel with bone) - thin layer of osteoid* that collagen fibre grows parallel to, structurally superior.

Answer 109

Contains additional fibre making it better at withstanding impact

Answer 110

Lamellar bone contains osteons

Answer 111

To allow blood vessels (and nerves) to run through the bone, these can be seen as the circle in the centre of the osteoblasts

Answer 112

The Haversian canal - contains blood vessels, lymphatics (waste disposal vessels) and nerves

Answer 113

The cement line

Answer 114

Found within the osteoblasts with canaliculi (cytoplasmic processes) running off of them

Answer 115

Smaller osteons that come off of the primary osteons into the bone tissue

Answer 116

Breaking down the bone and bone reabsorption by releasing protons which create an acidic environment which then leads to demineralisation of the bone. They also secrete proteases which destroys any organic matter.

Answer 117

Osteocytes come from differentiated osteoblasts Dendritic processes

Answer 118

Mesenchymal stem cells

Answer 119

Large cells Lots of nuclei

Answer 120

Bone marrow

Answer 121

Epithelial Nervous Connective Muscle (contractile) (- Blood, but this can also be considered connective)

Answer 122

Osteoclasts destroy/remove some of the bone Osteoblasts then secrete osteoid and concentric lamellae forms making walls of lamellar bone surrounding a blood vessels Secondary osteon is created

Answer 123

More stress over time = less elasticity in the bone and more deformation = higher chance of fracture This is referred to as cyclical loading

Answer 124

Makes the bone progressively more porous and therefore weak which leads to a large fracture.

Answer 125

High strains - microdamage - remodelling - increased porosity - fracture

Answer 126

Nerve Cells and Neuroglial Cells Neuroglial cells in the CNS: - astrocytes - oligodenrocytes - microglial cells - ependymal cells Neuroglial cells in the PNS: - satellite cells - Schwann cells

Answer 127

Neurons - receive and facilitate nerve impulses - classified based on function and structure Neuroglial cells - supporting cells by facilitating conduction of nerve impulses, immune function, maintenance of neurones

Answer 128

Support Movement Protection Fat/Energy Storage

Answer 129

Loose (or Areolar) Dense - regular - irregular Cartilage - hyaline - elastic - fibro Bone - lamellar - trabecular Blood (special kind of liquid connective tissue)

Answer 130

LCT Structure = cells found within a network of collagen and elastin fibres Function = loose packing, support, nourishment to associated structures, tissue sliding DCT Structure = matrix composed of collagen and elastin fibres Function = tensile strength and stretch resistance Cartilaginous Structure = depends on cartilage type Function = provides flexibility (as no calcium phosphate) with rigidity, can withstand pressure Bone Structure = collagen network (tensile strength), crystalline (compressive strength), bone cells ( maintenance) Function = provides strength and support

Answer 131

Chondrocytes: produce a matrix made of type ll collagen, glycoproteins and water Broken down and renewed No, its poorly supplied with blood

Answer 132

Loose has few elastin and collagen fibres - Dense has lots Loose has lots of cells and ground substance - Dense has few cells and less ground substance in the extracellular matrix Loose is less rigid/easily distorted but is still resistance when stretched due to collagens tough barrier - Dense is rigid and hard to distort due to its dense fibre Loose is found in mucosal + submucosal CT of blood vessels, muscle, nerves, organs (kidney, liver) Dense is found in tendons, ligaments, cornea of eye, arteries

Answer 133

Constantly remodelled Contains calcium phosphate (found as hydroxyapatite) in the extracellular matrix

Answer 134

Cells Collagen fibres Ground substance (special proteins)

Answer 135

Help to separate cells from each other (so not tightly packed), non-living ECM helps classify CT subgroups, structure of the ECM gives CT its morphological and functional characteristics

Answer 136

Collagen and elastin fibres - Collagen type l most common it’s strong, flexible but inelastic. - Reticular fibres are fine collagen type lll fibres and these networks fill spaces between tissue and organ. - Elastin has elastic properties but the % varies depending on tissue function Ground substance (non-fibrous protein + other molecules) - amphora’s gel-like substance that surrounds cells - components are hyaluronic acid and proteoglycans Water blood ECM has no collagen fibres

Answer 137

Structural support of cells, and guides their division, growth and development Specialised cells It is dynamic

Answer 138

-blast = creates matrix -cytes = maintain matrix -clasts = break down matrix for remodelling

Answer 139

epithelial tissue - derived from all three germ layers connective tissue - primarily derived from the mesoderm Muscle tissue - primarily derived from the mesoderm Nervous tissue - primarily derived from the ectoderm

Answer 140

During embryonic development, most connective tissue is found in the mesoderm. Main features of embryonic connective tissue: - Loosely packed cells embedded in an abundant extracellular matrix (ECM) - Rich in ground substance, which is composed of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and proteoglycans, providing a gel-like consistency - Contains mesenchymal cells, which are pluripotent and capable of differentiating into various cell types (e.g., fibroblasts, chondroblasts, - -osteoblasts, and adipocytes) - Highly vascular, facilitating nutrient exchange and cell migration Other names: Mesenchyme - undifferentiated, pluripotent tissue from which most adult connective tissues originate. Found throughout the embryo, forming the basis for cartilage, bone, and muscle development Wharton's jelly - type of mucous connective tissue found specifically in the umbilical cord, rich in hyaluronic acid and collagen, providing cushioning and protection to the umbilical vessels. Mucous connective tissue - subtype of embryonic CT with a jelly-like consistency. Composed of scattered fibroblast-like cells and gelatinous ECM, primarily located in the umbilical cord (Wharton's jelly)

Answer 141

composed of reticular fibres (a type of collagen, specifically type III collagen), contains fibroblasts that produce and maintain the fibres Found in lymphoid organs, where it forms a supportive framework.

Answer 142

Brown adipose tissue - heat white adipose tissue - energy storage

Answer 143

structure - Little ECM surrounding cells, cells full of lipid Function - packaging, protection, insulation

Answer 144

Mesenchymal cells are surrounded by an amorphous (no desingned shape or form) ground substance composed mainly of hydrated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), proteoglycans, and glycoproteins, along with a sparse network of reticular fibers (type III collagen). This extracellular matrix (ECM) provides a soft, jelly-like environment that allows the cells to remain loosely associated and mobile. Loosely associated, connected through thin cytoplasmic processes that are embedded in the ECM

Answer 145

cells, ECM (composed of fibres, ground substance, interstitial fluid - this allows for the exchange of nutrients, gases, and waste products between cells and the bloodstream)

Answer 146

Collagen fibres, elastic fibres and reticular fibres. Collagen fibres - provide tensile strength and resistance to stretching. E.g. tendons and ligaments, bone and cartilage, dermis of the skin Elastic fibres - provide elasticity and allows tissues to stretch and recoil. E.g. walls of large arteries, lungs, skin and elastic cartilage Reticular fibres - form a mesh-like network that provides support and structure for soft tissues and organs. E..g. lymph nodes and spleen. liver and bone marrow.

Answer 147

Collagen - consists of three polypeptide chains wound into a helical structure, which gives it strength and stability.

Answer 148

Consists of three polypeptide chains wound into a triple helix structure, which gives it strength and stability. Repeating sequence of Glycine- X-Y. X is often proline, Y is often hydroxyproline or hydroxylysine. Multiple triple helixes from into collagen fibrils, these then bundle together to form collagen fibres. Covalent cross-links between lysine and hydroxylysine stabalizes the fibrils making it more stable.

Answer 149

Primarily consists of glycine (33%) - smallest amino acid allowing the chains to fit tightly together in the helical structure, proline (10-15%) - introduces kinks in the polypeptide chain, promoting the helical structure, hydroxyproline (post transitionally modified form of proline) - stabilizes the triple helix by forming hydrogen bonds, hydroxylysine (another modified amino acids) - involved in covalent cross-links between collagen molecules, adding strength and flexibility Hydrogen bonds - form between hydroxyproline residues Covalent cross-links - involve lysine and hydroxylysine residues, occur during maturation and strengthen the fibril network Peptide bonds - hold the amino acids together within the chains Van der Waals forces and hydrophobic interactions - contribute to the packing of collagen molecules into fibrils

Answer 150

Skin, tendon, organs, mature scar tissue, artery walls, cornea, fibrocartilage, surrounding muscle fibres, organic part of bones and teeth, endomysium

Answer 151

hyaline cartilage, vitreous humour Vitreous humor is a clear gel that fills the back of the eye and helps maintain its shape and vision

Answer 152

reticular fibres (organ stroma), granulation tissue Granulation tissue is a type of new connective tissue and microscopic blood vessels that form on the surfaces of a wound during the healing process.

Answer 153

basal lamina, eye lens, fibration system of capillaries and glomerula

Answer 154

interstitial tissue (associated with type 1), placenta

Answer 155

Glycosaminoglycans Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are long, unbranched polysaccharides composed of repeating disaccharide units. They play a critical role in connective tissue function by interacting with water, proteins, and cells. Involved in hydration and lubrication, structural support and cushioning, cell signalling and adhesion, regulation of inflammation. GAGs are highly negatively charged due to the presence of sulfate and carboxyl groups, which attract water molecules. This gives GAGs the ability to retain water, creating a gel-like consistency in the extracellular matrix GAGs combine with proteins to form proteoglycans, which contribute to the ECM's resilience and shock absorption. Their gel-like nature allows tissues to resist compressive forces. GAGs can bind to growth factors, cytokines, and cell surface receptors, modulating cell signaling. GAGs can bind to growth factors, cytokines, and cell surface receptors, modulating cell signaling.

Answer 156

anticoagulants and antithrombotic, osteoarthritis and joint disorders, wound healing and tissue repair, ophthalmic applications, interstitial cytisis and bladder control, drug delivery and cancer therapy, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant applications

Answer 157

hydration and moisture retention (remarkable ability to hold up to 1000 times its weight in water), wound healing and tissue repair (promotes cell migration and proliferation, accelerating wound healing), anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, skin elasticity and antioxidant effects, skin elasticity and anti-aging, ocular functions, bladder protection, drug delivery and tissue engineering

Answer 158

Behavioural and Physiological

Answer 159

The animals emotional and welfare state Any potential safety concerns for staff, clients and public

Answer 160

‘Do no harm’ (By not creating a situation that causes an animal to be fearful of the veterinary clinic or of routine care procedures (eg, clipping nails), to advise and assist the client to take preventative measures to avoid an aversion to the veterinary practice and provide basic guidance to avoid development of behaviour problems.) Apply ‘behavioural first aid’ (Identify that a problem exists, take short-term measures to ensure the safety of people and animals, and if the veterinarian is not a behaviour specialist and, thus, unable to provide support, refer the animal to a suitably experienced person.)

Answer 161

Locomotion Is the animal lame? This can indicate both physiology and behavioural issues. This is usually an indicator that the animal is in pain This is assed through observation and scoring systems

Answer 162

Weaving = worn feet, muscle injury, arthritis Strange weight bearing = musculoskeletal system remodels

Answer 163

Have to consider: pre-op/post-op management hospital cages, box rest will gentle exercise be possible limb amputation adaptation and quality of life

Answer 164

Acute = short Chronic = long-lasting Pain scoring cannot differ between acute and chronic pain, this can lead to the animal receiving incorrect treatment. This is why a history is essential.

Answer 165

Simple Descriptive Scale - 5 or 5 point scale going from mild-moderate-severe Visual Analog Scale - 10cm line, left hand is 0 with no pain right hand is 10 with worst possible pain Numerical Rating Scales - scale of 4, 5 or 10-point pain scale Glasgow - for acute pain composed of 7 questions with a score of 20, guide for analgesic intervention for scores >/= 5 Facial/Grimace - scale 0-2 rating facial tenseness ie. tight lips, 0= not present, 1=moderately present, 2=obviously present

Answer 166

Fear : Unpleasant emotion caused by threat of danger, pain or harm (horse spooked when car drove past) Phobia : Irrational fear of, or aversion to something. Type of anxiety disorder (dog trembles when balloon goes near it) Anxiety : an uncontrollable physiological, behavioural and emotional reaction to stimuli (separation anxiety when left alone) Stress: any situation that disturbs the equilibrium between living organisms and their environments, they can cause your body to respond differently depending on trigger

Answer 167

Fight - attack threat Flight - escape threat Freeze - stiffen up Fidget - appears overly energetic, can’t stay still Anxiety and fear

Answer 168

species organ and evolutionary history Individuals history and context of interaction Assess environment and maximise comfort asses animal body language as indicated comfort level and intent asses your body language and behaviour asses handler language and attitude handling tools safe, effective restraint

Answer 169

look at labelled Maslow's hierarchy in brainscape folder

Answer 170

Emotion: response to stimuli, short lived Mood: positive or negative, not reliant on stimulus, longer-lasting Temperament: individuals emotional predisposition, long lasting (genetics, life experiences)

Answer 171

A fear of new things

Answer 172

Homeostasis: bodies response to change Allostasis: bodies response to the anticipation of change as well as actual changes

Answer 173

Flight or fight response - rapid Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal axis (HPA) - takes minutes to hours

Answer 174

1.Eustress - good stress 2.Neutral stress (neustress) - not harmful 3.Distress - affects well-being Body becomes aroused and attempts to reduce the stress

Answer 175

The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) is a three-stage physiological response to stress Alarm - Resistance - Exhaustion (referenced image - GAS image in BrainScape) Nervous and endocrine/hormonal

Answer 176

Flight or fight: - body prepares for physical activity - increase in epinephrin and norepinephrine = increase activity of sympathetic nervous system - activation of HPA axis = increase in corticosteroids (supress imune system) - adrenaline, noradrenaline, corticosteroids mobilise energy reserves and raise blood glucose - immune system repressed (susceptible to illness)

Answer 177

Second stage of the GAS, which describes how the body reacts to stress. Hormonal response - releases stress hormones, such as cortisol, epinephrine and norepinephrine, to sustain the energy and keep the body alert. Cortisol levels remain elevated, which increase glucose to provide energy. Body tries to maintain homeostasis despite the ongoing stress. Prolonged stress can cause immune system suppression and decreased sensitivity to stressors Risk of progression to exhaustion

Answer 178

Third and final stage of GAS Depletion of energy resources, leading to chronic fatigue and weakness weakened immune system, cortisol levels will remain high but might eventually drop due to burnout. Physical symptoms of exhaustion, such as headaches including cognitive and emotional decline Potential for serious health issues

Answer 179

stress perception (stressors detected by sensory organs (eyes, ears, etc) or interpretated by the brain, the amygdala assesses the situation and signals the hypothalamus which acts as a control centre and activates the SNS. SNS sends signals through the ANS to the adrenal glands which release epinephrine and norepinephrine, which cause: increase HR, increased BR, dilated pupils, muscle tension and redirected blood flow from unnecessary organs. If the stressor persists, the HPA axis is activated to sustain the stress response. The hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), this signals the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone, this prompts the adrenal glands to release cortisol (boosts glucose, enhances alertness and focus, reduces non-essential functions). Once the stressor has gone, the PNS activates, causing cortisol levels to drop, HR and BR normalise, and body returns to homeostasis.

Answer 180

stress hormone production decreases, HR and BP normalise, breathing slows, digestive system reactivates, immune function resumes, muscle tension relaxes, pupil dilation reverses, cognitive focus shifts

Answer 181

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal axis. Its a complex network involving three main components: the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and adrenal glands. The HPA axis activates through a cascade of events: stress signal detection, pituitary activation, adrenal gland activation resulting in the stress response effects. Hypothalamus releases corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) into pituitary gland. Pituitary gland releases Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) via blood, this acts on cortex of the adrenal gland. Adrenal cortex releases cortisol into the circulatory system this activates the body's cells, endocrine glands and brain. Cortisol effects - turns off insulin, liver starts releasing glucose, increase in energy supply - shuts down reproductive function and inhibits production of growth hormone - bodies energy supply can be concentrated on dealing with the stress.

Answer 182

Learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus.

Answer 183

-identify and define the behaviour -gather background information -observe and record the behaviour -assess environmental and social factors -physiological and cognitive evaluation - rule out medical causes -diagnose and develop an intervention plan behavioural factors are typically influenced by 3 key factors: biological factors, physiological factors, environmental/social factors

Answer 184

Defensive (fear-related) Irritable (pain-related), protective (territorial), predatory hypertension (high-blood pressure)

Answer 185

Takes a holistic, systematic approach: - comprehensive history and observation -rule out medical issues -identify triggers and motivation -create and implement a tailored behaviour modification plan -provide ongoing support and adjustment to ensure long-term success

Answer 186

✅ Antecedent → What happens before the behavior? ✅ Behaviour → The specific action or response that occurs. ✅ Consequence → What happens after the behaviour?

Answer 187

- mental health and emotional well being -parenting and behavioural awareness -lifestyle and behavioural changes

Answer 188

The amygdala is a small, almond-shaped cluster of nuclei located deep within the temporal lobe of the brain, near the hippocampus. It is a key part of the limbic system, involved in emotion processing, memory, and behaviour regulation. Basolateral complex (BLA) - emotional learning and associations Central nucleus (CeA) - involved in automatic and behavioural responses, plays a role in fear conditioning Corticomedial nucleus - olfactory processing and the regulation of appetite and sexual behaviour Intercalated masses (ICMs) - regulatory filter for amygdala output, modulating emotional responses Within the fibre tracts of the amygdala, you’ll find interspersed cell groups. The two most important groups are: - the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) - functionally linked to amygdala in stress response and anxiety regulation -extended amygdala - incl BNST and parts of the central amygdala, playing a role in chronic stress and addiction-related behaviours. The amygdala's main purpose is to: Process and regulate emotions: Especially fear, anxiety, and aggression. Form emotional memories: It links emotions with memories, enhancing memory consolidation during emotional events. Trigger autonomic responses: Involved in the fight-or-flight response, influencing heart rate, hormone release, and behavior. Decision-making and social behavior: Helps interpret emotional cues and influences emotional decision-making.

Answer 189

Basolateral complex refers to the entire region, which includes the lateral nucleus as well as the basal and accessory basal nuclei. The lateral nucleus of the amygdala plays a key role in emotional learning and sensory integration, specifically in fear processing. It receives info from the thalamus, sensory cortices and hippocampus. The central medial nucleus (CeM) is part of the central nucleus of the amygdala and is primarily involved in triggering autonomic and behavioural responses.

Answer 190

Amygdala → Hypothalamus → HPA axis: Triggers the fight-or-flight response. Amygdala → Brainstem: Activates reflexive and autonomic responses (e.g., startle reflex, freezing). Amygdala → Prefrontal Cortex: Modulates conscious fear perception and emotional regulation.

Answer 191

Fear conditioning is a form of associative learning in which an organism learns to associate a neutral stimulus (such as a tone or light) with an aversive stimulus (such as an electric shock), leading to a conditioned fear response (e.g., freezing, increased heart rate, or stress hormone release). This type of learning is a key model for studying fear, anxiety, and trauma-related disorders like PTSD. The amygdala, particularly the basolateral amygdala (BLA) and the central nucleus (CeA), is the primary brain region involved in fear conditioning. Here’s how it works: -Basolateral Amygdala (BLA) – Processes and associates sensory information (e.g., the tone and shock) to form fear memories. -Central Nucleus (CeA) – Acts as the output region, sending signals to other brain areas (e.g., hypothalamus, brainstem) to trigger fear responses (freezing, increased arousal, etc.). Other brain regions also play important roles: -Hippocampus – Contextual fear conditioning (associating fear with a specific environment). -Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) – Regulates and extinguishes fear responses. -thalamus – Rapidly relays sensory information to the amygdala. The amygdala is essential for both acquiring and expressing conditioned fear, making it the central hub for fear-related learning and behaviour.

Answer 192

Fear extinction is a form of learning in which a previously conditioned fear response diminishes when the conditioned stimulus (e.g., a tone previously paired with a shock) is repeatedly presented without the aversive outcome. Unlike forgetting or erasing the original fear memory, extinction involves forming a new inhibitory memory that suppresses the fear response. Key Brain Regions Involved in Fear Extinction Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) – Particularly the infralimbic (IL) cortex (in rodents) or ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) (in humans): -Plays a crucial role in inhibiting the amygdala during extinction. -Strengthens extinction memories by suppressing fear responses. Amygdala – Still involved, but its activity is modulated by the PFC: -The basolateral amygdala (BLA) interacts with the PFC to form extinction memories. -The central nucleus (CeA) reduces fear output when extinction is learned. Hippocampus – Helps with context-dependent extinction (remembering whether extinction occurred in a specific environment).

Answer 193

The unconditioned pathway refers to the neural circuit that processes the innate (unlearned) fear response to an aversive stimulus (like a shock or loud noise), as opposed to the conditioned pathway, which learns associations between neutral and aversive stimuli (like in fear conditioning). Thalamus -Receives raw sensory input (e.g., pain, loud sounds) and relays it rapidly to the amygdala. -The sensory thalamus (e.g., medial geniculate nucleus for sounds) provides a quick but crude signal. Amygdala (Central Nucleus, CeA) -The central nucleus (CeA) is the primary output for innate fear responses. -Activates downstream targets to trigger freezing, increased heart rate, stress hormones, etc. Hypothalamus & Brainstem -The CeA projects to the periaqueductal gray (PAG) (for freezing/defensive behaviors) and the lateral hypothalamus (for autonomic responses like increased blood pressure). How It Works (Example: Response to a Shock) Stimulus: A painful foot shock activates nociceptive (pain) pathways. Fast Thalamic Route: The shock signal reaches the lateral amygdala (LA) via the posterior intralaminar nucleus (PIN) of the thalamus (a direct, subcortical route). Amygdala Processing: The LA quickly activates the CeA, which orchestrates the fear response. Fear Outputs: Freezing: Via projections to the PAG. Autonomic Arousal: Via the hypothalamus and vagus nerve. Stress Hormones: Via the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) and HPA axis.

Answer 194

Conditioned vs. Unconditioned Pathways in Fear Conditioning Unconditioned Response (UR) Pathway: Mediates the innate reaction to the aversive stimulus (e.g., shock → freezing). Conditioned Response (CR) Pathway: Develops after learning, linking a neutral stimulus (tone) to fear via the basolateral amygdala (BLA). Key Difference The unconditioned pathway is hardwired and does not require learning. The conditioned pathway (involving BLA and PFC) is plastic and forms through associative learning. Innate behaviors are those actions or responses that occur naturally, without the need for learning or experience. Aversive stimulus is a term used in psychology to refer to any stimulus or occurrence that evokes avoidance behavior or escape behavior in an individual.

Answer 195

Unconditioned pathways are innate, natural or reflexive pathways. They are hardwired in the nervous system and do not require prior learning. They involve unconditioned stimuli and unconditioned response. Conditioned pathways are formed through learning and experience, they involved the association of a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus until the neutral stimulus alone triggers the response. The learned association creates a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response. Neural pathways have physical connections of neurons in the brain and the nervous system. They are the biological structures that carry electrical and chemical signals between different parts of the brain and the body. Neural plasticity allows these pathways to be strengthened or weakened through experience and learning.

Answer 196

Initial pathway of the neutral stimulus - pathway during conditioning - conditioned response Initial pathway involves sensory detection by sensory organs and the associated signal being transmitted to the brain. Then processed by the thalamus , which sends it to the appropriate sensory cortex for interpretation. The stimulus is neutral so the brain perceives it but does not trigger a reflex or automatic response as it is purely recognized as a meaningless signal. Pathway during conditioning. When the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, the brain starts forming new associations. You then get the co-activation of pathways (the NS pathways and the unconditioned stimulus pathway fire simultaneously) this leads to the formation of an association (amygdala (emotional learning centre) and hippocampus (memory centre), neural connections strengthen. The prefrontal cortex also plays a role in forming the association. As it is involved in cognitive processing and integrating information. It helps regulate and consolidate the learned association making it more stable. This causes the neutral stimulus to become a conditioned stimulus. It now triggers the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. The neural pathway has been altered through synaptic plasticity and Hebbian learning. Key Takeaway The neutral stimulus initially follows a sensory pathway without causing a significant response. During conditioning, it becomes linked to the emotional or motor response pathway through synaptic strengthening. The result: the once-meaningless NS now triggers a conditioned response (CR).

Answer 197

contextual conditioning is a form of classical conditioning in which the environment or context itself becomes part of the conditioned stimulus. The context becomes a conditioned cue. The brain associates the environment or context with the unconditioned stimulus. eventually the context alone triggers the conditioned response. This process involves the hippocampus (memory centre) and the amygdala (links the emotional response to the unconditioned stimulus and the context). This creates a context-dependent memory. Prefrontal cortex is also important as it regulates and integrates the contextual and emotional information and is involved in decision making, interpretation and learning.

Answer 198

1. Behaviour modification is a therapeutic approach based on the principles of operant and classical conditioning. It involves using reinforcement, punishment, or extinction to change or shape specific behaviours. 2. The process of making or becoming accustomed or used to something 3. Systematic desensitisation is a therapeutic technique used to reduce phobias or anxiety by gradually exposing the individual to the feared object or situation while practicing relaxation techniques. 4. Counter-conditioning is a behavioural therapy technique in which a previously learned association is replaced with a new, more positive association.

Answer 199

1) Flooding is a behavioural therapy technique used to treat phobias and anxiety disorders by exposing the individual to the feared stimulus at full intensity for a prolonged period. 2) Reinforcement is a principle of operant conditioning in which a consequence strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behaviour. 3) Punishment is a principle of operant conditioning in which a consequence decreases the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again. 4) Associative learning is a form of learning in which an individual links two stimuli or a behaviour with a consequence. Examples. 1) placing a person with arachnophobia in a room full of spiders 2) giving praise for good behaviour 3) giving detention for tardiness 4) dog salivates when hearing a bell

Answer 200

1) Desensitization is a process of reducing emotional or physiological responses to a stimulus through gradual and repeated exposure. 2) Sensitization is a form of non-associative learning where repeated exposure to a stimulus increases the response over time. 3) An aversive is any stimulus or experience that is unpleasant, uncomfortable, or undesirable, often used in punishment-based training. E.G. shock, loud noise 4) Pheromonatherapy is the use of synthetic pheromones to influence animal behaviour and reduce stress, anxiety, or aggression. 5) Clicker training is a positive reinforcement training method that uses a small device (clicker) to mark desired behaviours.

Answer 201

Genetic influence refers to the impact of inherited genes on an individual's physical traits, behaviours, and psychological characteristics.

Answer 202

Prenatal - 6 Neonatal - 2 transitional - 3 socialisation period - 4 juvenile period - 1 social maturity - 5 possibly

Answer 203

1) learning through exposure to a single stimulus without forming associations. 2) learning through forming connections between stimuli or behaviours and consequences 3) A rapid form of learning that occurs during a sensitive period and creates a lasting bond or recognition. 4) Learning by observing and imitating the behaviour of others.

Answer 204

Classical learning, or classical conditioning, is a type of associative learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, leading to a conditioned response. Operant learning, or operant conditioning, is a learning process where behaviour is strengthened or weakened by consequences (rewards or punishments).

Answer 205

A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when added after a behaviour, increases the likelihood of that behaviour happening again in the future. Negative punishment occurs when a desirable stimulus is removed after a behaviour, which decreases the likelihood of that behaviour happening again.

Answer 206

A negative reinforcer is the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behaviour recurring. Positive punishment involves adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behaviour.

Answer 207

An unconditioned reinforcer (or primary reinforcer) is a stimulus that is naturally rewarding and does not require learning to be effective. E.G. sleeping.

Answer 208

sensitivity is the ability of a pain assessment tool to correctly identify individuals who truly have pain. specificity is the ability of a pain assessment tool to correctly rule out individuals who do NOT have pain.

Answer 209

Allows evaluation of what is normal/abnormal You can assess gait patterns Becomes easier to identify gait adaptations – e.g. lameness Highlights performance and welfare indicators

Answer 210

Human Observation (vets use) P - low technical requirements, low cost C - subjective/biased, human eye misses details, experience needed Technical Equipment P - objective, less bias, measurable C - needs dedicated equipment, space, resources, personnel and has high cost

Answer 211

Specific patterns of footfall during locomotion. These change with speed and have characterised sequences.

Answer 212

A stride takes place within a gate, it is the complete cycle of one movement* and has two phases: The stance phase (weight bearing) and the swing phase (non-weight bearing) *from the setting down pf foot to the next setting down of the same foot

Answer 213

Walk, Trot, Canter, Gallop

Answer 214

Four-beat, Symmetric, Never >3 or<2 limbs bearing weight at one time, centre of gravity in a triangle between weight bearing feet Footfall sequence : RH-RF-LH-LF

Answer 215

Two-beat, symmetric, diagonal gait, body supported alternately by L&R diagonals, period of suspension (between successive stance phases), marked axial twisting resisted by axial system

Answer 216

Three-beat, asymmetric, 1 moment of suspension (when forelimb leaves ground before hindlimb hits the ground), lead leg is left or right, one diagonal pair and other two limbs out of phase RH, RF+LH, LF OR LH, LF+RH, RF

Answer 217

Four-beat, asymmetric, lead with inside/lead leg around a turn, moment of suspension RH,LH,RF,LF

Answer 218

Period when o feet are in contact with the ground (fast trot, canter, gallop) Usually 1 per cycle but 2 in greyhounds and cheetahs (see image)

Answer 219

Transverse = 1 (LH RH LF RF *) Rotary = 2 (RH LH * LF RF *) Counter-rotary = 2, just opposite of rotary

Answer 220

Dogs at low speed Horses (odd-toed ungulates*) Cattle (large even-toed ungulates) *mammals with hooves

Answer 221

Cats Dogs at high speed Gazelle, antelope (small uneven-toed ungulates) Running rodents Horses during disunited canter (not good ryhtmn)

Answer 222

Greyhounds on the track as it’s anti-clockwise

Answer 223

Physical necessity due to the pendulum effect, centrifugal force acting upwards and fraude number* = leg moving at constant velocity:gravitational force Metabolic advantages, so animal will move at speed which is energy efficient and that matches with the respiratory rate Mechanical advantages to reduce bone strain *Speed at which we change gait ie. walk to run

Answer 224

Cerebellar Dysfunction - The cerebellum plays a key role in fine-tuning motor movements, balance, and coordination. Damage or dysfunction here can lead to: - Ataxia: uncoordinated, clumsy movements - Dysmetria: inability to judge distance or scale of movement (like overshooting a target) - Tremors during intentional movement (intention tremor) Proprioceptive Impairment - Proprioception is the sense of body position and movement, largely mediated by the dorsal columns of the spinal cord and peripheral nerves. Damage can result in: - Poor limb position awareness: leading to misjudged or delayed movements - Sensory ataxia: coordination worsens when visual input is removed (e.g., positive Romberg sign)

Answer 225

- relatively rigid spine/ sacroiliac junction: large gut, large body mass, transfer or energy from powerful hind quarters, minimises up-and-down movements of body during locomotion (conserves energy) - conservation of energy: whiplash effect on limb, long tendons (transfer load, shock absorbers, energy store), stable joints (limit range of movement but little extra support required (low mass= low inertia)

Answer 226

- elongation of limbs (mass proximal) - digitigrade ( needs claws for catching pray, also assist with grip) - flexible back (arches and straightens over wide range- increasing stride length, no restriction from gut - tail (assists with balance)

Answer 227

- low safety margins: bones and tendons (fractures and tendon strains) - little soft-tissue cover distal limbs (poor wound/fracture healing) - little soft tissue to absorb impact loads (joint injuries/OA)

Answer 228

Joints ie. flexible interface between joints Flexible support ie. outer ear

Answer 229

Articular/Hyaline Fibrocartilage Elastic

Answer 230

- joint surfaces, covering the end of the bones, like in synovial joints - precursors of bone in the embryonic skeleton - found in bones as a centre of ossification* for bone growth - mostly type ll cartilage *turning cartilage and fibrous tissue into bone

Answer 231

Avascular = devoid of blood vessels Aneural = devoid of nerves Alymphatic = devoid of lymphatics

Answer 232

Withstand and distribute load Elastic shock absorber Wear resistance against surfaces in articulating joints Self maintaining

Answer 233

Specialised cartilage for areas requiring tough support or tensile strength Intervertebral disks and surfaces of bony groves for tendons (interface ligament/tendon and bone)

Answer 234

Fibro: Type l and ll collagen (more collagen than articular), Type ll makes up 50% of dry weight, lacks perichondrium * Articular: Type ll cartilage Elastic: Type ll cartilage, elastin its matrix * layer of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds cartilage, especially hyaline and elastic cartilage

Answer 235

Yellow Found in the pinna of the ear and several tubes like the larynx which it keeps permanently open

Answer 236

Chondrocytes Keeping and maintaining the matrix, they can secrete new matrix whilst embedded in the matrix (this results in internal expansion) Through the diffusion of O2 as cartilage is avascular Yes, they divide within the matrix

Answer 237

Their morphology depends on their depth/zone. They have different biochemical, biomechanics and physiological properties.

Answer 238

Superficial Middle Deep Calcified

Answer 239

Water and carbohydrates (so it’s highly hydrated)

Answer 240

I + II = cerebrum III - XII = brainstem

Answer 241

1- optic canal 2 - orbital fissure 3 - rostral alar foramen

Answer 242

OLFactory OPtic OCCulomotor TROchlear Trigeminal * Abducen Facial Vestibulocochlear Glossophrayngeal Vagus (Spinal) accessory (spinal and cranial part) Hypoglossal V1 opthalmic branch V2 maxillary branch V3 madibular branch

Answer 243

Olfactory - olfactory foramina Optic - optic canal Oculomotor - orbital fissure Trochlear - orbital fissure Trigeminal - V1, 2 and 3 Abducens - orbital fissure Facial - Stylomastoid foramen Vestibulocochlear - internal acoustic meatus Glossopharyngeal - Jugular foramen Vagus - Jugular foramen Accessory - Jugular foramen Hypoglossal nerve - Hypoglossal canal

Answer 244

1 through 12 in order as below I olfactory II optic III oculomotor IV trochlear V trigeminal VI abducent VII facial VIII vestibulocochlear IX glossopharyngeal X vagus XI accessory XII hypoglossal nerve

Answer 245

Special senses (olfactory, optic, vestibulocochlear) Innervation of head muscles (oculomotor, trochlear, abducens, hypoglossal) Innervation of structures originating from brachial arches (trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory) The branchial arches (also called pharyngeal arches) are structures that develop in the embryonic stage and give rise to various anatomical structures in the head, neck, and face.

Answer 246

trigeminal nerve

Answer 247

Opthalmic, Mandibular, Maxillary Mandibular - masseter muscle atrophy, drop jaw

Answer 248

Ear, eyelid, cornea, lip

Answer 249

Cochlear = hearing Vestibular = balance

Answer 250

Head tilt, circling , nystagmus (involuntary rapid movement of one or both eyes), leaning

Answer 251

Motor function to the tongue and pharynx

Answer 252

Tongue = Stylopharyngeous (inability to move feed from the back of the tongue to the oesophagus Pharynx = difficulty swallowing, respiratory noises, pharyngeal collapse Grass can sometimes be seen through the nose

Answer 253

Laryngeal paralysis, stridor (high-pitched breathing) , dysphagia (difficulty swallowing) Slap test (not commonly used anymore, feeling for larynx flinch ), endoscopy, passing a nasogastric tub Issue with the glottis

Answer 254

Sternocleidomastoid (SCM) Function: Turns the head to the opposite side and flexes the neck. Trapezius Function: Elevates the shoulders (shrugging) and helps rotate and stabilize the scapula. Signs of nerve damage - shoulder droop on affected side due to trapezius weakness - difficulty when shrugging the shoulder - weakness turning the head away from the side of the lesion - scapular winging or asymmetry - muscle atropy over time in the SCM/ trapezius

Answer 255

Nerve is all about tongue movement. Innervates all intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of the tongue except the palatoglossal (which is the vagus nerve) Speech (articulation) Swallowing Chewing Moving the tongue in and out, and side to side Tongue deviation Towards the side of the lesion in a lower motor neuron (LMN) lesion ➤ "The tongue licks the lesion." Opposite side deviation in some upper motor neuron (UMN) lesions Atrophy (wasting) of the tongue muscles on the affected side Fasciculations (small, involuntary muscle twitches) — a key LMN sign Speech issues (dysarthria) Slurred or imprecise pronunciation due to tongue weakness Difficulty with swallowing (dysphagia)

Answer 256

Grey Matter 1. Cerebral Cortex (neocortex) 2. Cingulate Gyrus 3. Basal Ganglia: Caudate Nucleus White Matter 4. Cerebral White Matter 5. Corpus Callosum 6. Internal Capsules 7. Ventricles - Lateral Ventricles The cerebral hemisphere of the telencephalon

Answer 257

Grey Matter 1. Cerebral Cortex (neocortex) 2. Cingulate Gyrus White Matter 3. Corpus Callosum 4. Internal Capsules 5. Ventricles - Lateral Ventricles 6. Rhinencephalon - Hippocampus 7. Rhinencephalon - Fornix

Answer 258

Look at answered version

Answer 259

look at answered version

Answer 260

Grey matter (same as gray matter) is a type of tissue in your brain and spinal cord that consists of neuronal cell bodies and their dendrites. White matter is a type of tissue in your brain and spinal cord that consists of millions of bundles of axons, or nerve fibres.

Answer 261

look at answered version

Answer 262

Forebrain is spilt into two divisions the telencephalon and diencephalon the diencephalon this gives rise to the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus and subthalamus the telencephalon gives rise to the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, etc.

Answer 263

midbrain, pons and medulla

Answer 264

Major relay station for sensory information Integration of motor information from cerebellum and basal ganglia, before passing on to the motor regions of the cortex

Answer 265

Link between nervous system and endocrine system Regulatory centre for the autonomic nervous system Homeostasis: Body temp, Blood pressure, Thirst, hunger, Reproduction, Circadian rhythm (wakefulness) Stress response

Answer 266

look at answered version

Answer 267

Function: Hormonal regulation of many physiological systems E.g. metabolism, growth, sexual maturation, reproduction and many others

Answer 268

look at answered version

Answer 269

Function: Production of melatonin Seasonal regulation: sleep/wake cycle Reproduction Fur colour changes

Answer 270

look at answered version

Answer 271

Brain stem connects your brain to the spinal cord it is made up of the thalamus, pituitary gland, pons and medulla oblongata.

Answer 272

CS - medulla oblongata R - medulla oblongata PS - PAG (periaqueductal grey) A A C - reticular activating system (RAS), network of neurons extends through the central core of the brainstem, particularly in the pons, medulla, and midbrain.

Answer 273

Mamillary Nucleus + Piriform Lobe The cerebral hemisphere of the telencephalon Diencephalon 8- thalamus 9- interthalamic adhesion 10- hypothalamus 11- mamillary body 12- third ventricle

Answer 274

Cerebral cortex (neocortex) Cerebral white matter Ventricles - Lateral Ventricles Rhinencephalon - Hippocampus Hippocampus Medial Geniculate Nucleus Brachium of Rostral Colliculus Mesencephalon (midbrain)

Answer 275

Oculomotor Nucleus and Red Nucleus The cerebral hemisphere of the telencephalon Diencephalon Mesencephalon

Answer 276

Cerebral Cortex (neocortex) Cerebral White Matter Mesencephalon (midbrain) Metencephalon (hindbrain)

Answer 277

Mesencephalon (midbrain) – cerebellum

Answer 278

fourth ventricle lateral recess & foramen choroid plexus pyramidal tract medial lemniscus facial nucleus spinal tract of V nucleus of spinal tract of V caudal cerebellar peduncle vestibular nuclei (medial + lateral) reticular formation Cranial nerve - glossopharyngeal/vagus n.

Answer 279

Facial Nucleus Metencephalon Myelencephalon

Answer 280

1- Central Canal Grey Matter 2- Dorsal Horn 3- Ventral Horn White Matter 4- White Matter Spinal cord segment (C-2, 2nd vertebra of the spine) Central Canal

Answer 281

At the retina Several layers - the key component being the photoreceptors

Answer 282

Photoreceptors in retina take in information, this moves through the retina into the visual pathways, it then reaches the occipital cortex/visual cortex, once it has reached here it moves to the association cortex

Answer 283

Ganglion cells (produce a white matter tract - optic nerve - that transmits info to the brain) Bipolar cells, Amacrine cells, Horizontal cells (allows processing to occur at retina before transmission to the cortex a the cells connect the photoreceptors to each other) Photoreceptors (converting a photon of energy into membrane depolarisation and action potential)

Answer 284

one-one relationship multimodal relationship

Answer 285

1. ON-center ganglion cells Response: Increase their firing rate when light hits the center of their receptive field. Inhibition: Decrease firing when light hits the surround of the receptive field. Function: Detect increases in light intensity (light spots on a dark background). 2. OFF-center ganglion cells Response: Increase their firing rate when light hits the surround and not the center. Inhibition: Decrease firing when light hits the center of the receptive field. Function: Detect decreases in light intensity (dark spots on a light background). 3. ON-OFF ganglion cells Response: Fire action potentials at both the onset and offset of a light stimulus. Function: These are particularly good at detecting motion or changes in light intensity.

Answer 286

Small Field Ganglion Cells Location: Primarily found in the central retina (fovea). Receptive Field: Very small. Function: High spatial resolution and color vision. Associated With: Parvocellular (P-cells) pathway. These cells are excellent at detecting fine detail and color differences Large Field Ganglion Cells Location: More common in the peripheral retina. Receptive Field: Large. Function: Sensitive to motion, low contrast, and broad spatial changes. Associated With: Magnocellular (M-cells) pathway. These cells are key for motion detection and temporal resolution.

Answer 287

If light hits both centre and surround equally: The responses cancel out somewhat due to lateral inhibition from horizontal and amacrine cells. Result: Minimal change in firing → this sharpens contrast at edges. Lateral inhibition boosts our ability to detect: Edges Borders Small differences in light across space

Answer 288

ganglion cells fire when: There's contrast between the center and the surround of their receptive field. The specific pattern of light/dark matches their center-surround arrangement. The stimulus changes, like a flicker or edge passing by — especially for ON-OFF or motion-sensitive cells.

Answer 289

The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) is like the brains visual relay station. A relay center in the thalamus for the visual pathway. Shaped like a bent knee (which is where the word "geniculate" comes from — Latin "genu" = knee). Receives input from the retinal ganglion cells via the optic tract.

Answer 290

striate cortex, primary visual cortex, broadmann area 17

Answer 291

Retina → Optic nerve → Optic chiasm → Optic tract → LGN → Optic radiations → V1 (Primary visual cortex) Optic radiations (geniculocalcarine tract). These are bundles of axons that fan out from LGN towards the visual cortex. Neural highway connecting the thalamus to the brains visual processing centre

Answer 292

Retinal ganglion cells send their axons to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in the thalamus. Neurons in the LGN then synapse with neurons in the primary visual cortex (V1 So, it’s LGN neurons that connect the visual cortex to the output of ganglion cells.

Answer 293

1. Simple Cells Function: Simple cells in V1 are responsible for detecting specific features of visual stimuli such as edges, orientation, and contrast. These cells have distinct receptive fields and respond best to stimuli that have a particular orientation and are located at specific positions within their receptive fields. 2. Complex Cells Function: Complex cells are responsible for detecting more complex patterns and motions. They are involved in integrating information across a larger area of the visual field and are crucial for motion detection and object recognition. 3. Hypercomplex (End-Stopped) Cells Function: Hypercomplex cells are specialized for detecting more complex features such as corners, angles, and the ends of lines. They are critical for processing the boundaries and shapes of objects.

Answer 294

Rods - shades of grey so darkness Cones - sensitive to blue light (s-cones) sensitive to green light (m-cones), sensitive to red light (l-cones) s and m and L stand for size of wavelength e.g. short-wavelength cones

Answer 295

Seizures are caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain. This can happen for various reasons, and they can be triggered by many different factors. Some common causes include: epilepsy (recurrent, unprovoked seizures and is a neurological disorder), stroke, brain infections, brain injury or trauma, brain tumour, hypoglycaemia (affects brain function), sleep deprivation, electrolyte imbalance

Answer 296

Seizures are sudden, uncontrolled bursts of abnormal electrical activity in the brain.

Answer 297

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent, unprovoked seizures caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain.

Answer 298

Convulsions are rapid involuntary muscle contractions. They are common during seizures

Answer 299

EEG is typically used for measuring electrical activity in the brain. Common causes for sudden spikes in brain waveforms include: seizure activity, brain injury or trauma, brain tumours, sleep disorders, infection or inflammation of the brain, electrolyte imbalance in the brain, medication or drug effects

Answer 300

focal epilepsy - originate in one specific area of the brain generalized epilepsy - involves seizures that affect both sides of the brain from the onset Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME)- type of generalized epilepsy that typically begins in adolescence or early adulthood. Lennoz-Gastaut Sydrome (LGS) - severe form of epilepsy that typically begins in childhood temporal love epilepsy - type of focal epilepsy that originates in the temporal lobes of the brain, which are involved in memory, emotion, and language.

Answer 301

generalized seizures. These seizures affect both sides of the brain and typically cause the dog to lose consciousness and experience full-body muscle contractions.

Answer 302

of unknown origin caused by an underlying structural problem in the brain, such as a tumour, brain injury, infection or malformation

Answer 303

brain tumours, traumatic brain injury, infections (encephalitis, meningitis), hydrocephalus (excess of cerebrospinal fluid in the brain), stroke, brain cysts, brain malformations, brain scar tissue (interfere with the normal flow of electrical signals in the brain and cause seizures)

Answer 304

Preictal phase (aura) this is the warning phase, so specific warning signs. Ictal phase (seizure phase) - actual seizure Postictal phase - recovery period Interictal phase - between seizures where the brain is functioning normally, and there are no seizure activities

Answer 305

focal starts in one specific area of the brain (focus), can affect one part of the body or behaviour depending on location, consciousness may or may not be affected generalized starts on both sides of the brain, usually involves losing consciousness, affect the entire body not just one part

Answer 306

Status Epilepticus (SE) is a medical emergency where a seizure lasts too long (over 5 mins) or multiple seizures occur close together without regaining consciousness in between

Answer 307

medication (anticonvulsants/ anti-seizure drugs) surgery for structural seizures lifestyle and supportive management (dietary therapy, avoiding triggers, regular exercise and sleep, monitoring and seizure diaries, emergency at home medications for cluster seizures)

Answer 308

First-line anti-seizure drugs (like phenobarbital, diazepam, or levetiracetam) usually work on the brains neurotransmitters. Generalised tonic-clonic seizures (grand mal) - they are severe, involve loss of consciousness, and cause full-body convulsions. They pose the greatest risks. First-line drugs aim to stop or prevent these seizures due to their intensity and danger

Answer 309

Seizure-suppressing drugs — also called anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) or anticonvulsants — work by calming abnormal electrical activity in the brain. Seizure drugs work by: Action Effect Boosting GABA Calms the brain Blocking Glutamate Reduces overexcitation Blocking Sodium Channels Slows down neuron firing Blocking Calcium Channels Reduces signal spread Stabilizing Neurons Prevents seizures from starting GABA is the brains main inhibitory neurotransmitter

Answer 310

- body weight. Dosage is often in mg per Kg of body weight - type of drug, different strengths, durations and absorption rates - frequency of dosing - monitoring blood levels to make sure it is in the therapeutic range - owner compliance consistency on time and as prescribed

Answer 311

Great question! The difference between intra-cranial and extra-cranial causes of seizures is all about where the problem originates — inside or outside the brain.

Answer 312

Phenobarbital 🔬 Mechanism of Action: Enhances GABA activity (gamma-aminobutyric acid), the brain’s main inhibitory neurotransmitter. This increases inhibition of neurons, making them less likely to fire abnormally. Also reduces excitatory neurotransmission, helping to calm overactive brain circuits. Levetiracetam (Keppra) 🔬 Mechanism of Action: Binds to the SV2A protein on synaptic vesicles (tiny structures that release neurotransmitters). This helps modulate neurotransmitter release, reducing the likelihood of abnormal brain signals that lead to seizures. Does not significantly affect liver enzymes, so it's considered safer for some patients.

Answer 313

Phenobarbital. Half life 35-90 hours in dogs average around 48-72. Time to steady rate 10-15 days. Line of treatment 1-st line treatment. Highly effective but requires blood level monitoring due to risk of liver toxicity Levetiracetam (keppra). Half life 3-4 hours in dogs. Time to steady rate 1-2 days. Fast onset but dosage of 3 times per day due to short half life. 2nd-line treatment. Great for patients that don’t tolerate phenobarbital or need additional control

Answer 314

An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or resembling that associated with, actual or potential tissue damage

Answer 315

Differs due to the context, their cognitive set, their mood and their brains chemicals and structure (Also more basically - trauma, early life experiences and genetics)

Answer 316

The neuronal process of encoding noxious stimuli (neural processing of pain). Nociceptive pain is pain caused by the activation of nociceptors. Nocioception includes the reception, conduction and CNS processing of nerve of nerve signals that arise due to this activation.

Answer 317

Stimulus that’s damaging or threatens to damage normal tissues.

Answer 318

Somatic : pain experienced from skin, muscle, bone damage/disease Visceral : pain experienced because or organ pain (abdominal or thoracic)

Answer 319

Frequency-dependant increase in the excitability of spinal cord neurone, evoked by electrical stimulation of afferent C-fibres (spinal cord wound up by too many signals that then get confused for pain - common with chronic pain)

Answer 320

Pain caused by a lesion or disease of the somatosensory nervous system - contrasts with nociceptive pain The somatosensory nervous system is a complex network of neural structures involved in the perception, transmission, and processing of external and internal stimuli. It includes proprioception, exteroception and interoception. Proprioception: sense of body position and movement Exteroception: sensation of external stimuli Interoception: sensory feedback related to internal bodily states

Answer 321

The either travel to the cortex in the brain or the limbic part of the brain (hippocampus, amygdala and the hypothalamus. These are a set of brain structures involved in emotion, memory, behaviour, and olfaction

Answer 322

Picking up signals from sensitive parts of the body so it can identify where the pain signals are coming from and the intensity of these signals

Answer 323

Emotions, response to threats, feelings, behaviour, mood ie. the affective aspects of pain

Answer 324

They can enhance or reduce pain by increasing or decreasing the pain signals travelling to the brain

Answer 325

a Pain = conscious (perception of what’s happening in higher centres) Nociception = unconscious (neural processing of stimuli)

Answer 326

Pain receptors found as non-encapsulated nerve endings

Answer 327

mechanical, thermal and chemical

Answer 328

A-delta fibres and c fibres

Answer 329

They travel up to the dorsal root ganglion and then into the grey matter of the spinal cord in organised layers, they then reach the brain

Answer 330

A is myelinated = fast conduction and well localised resulting in immediate sharp pain C is unmyelinated = slow and not well localised resulting in a dull aching pain

Answer 331

Pain treatment is often described as multimodal because managing pain usually works better when you combine different types of therapies rather than relying on just one method. Such as medications, physical therapy, physiological therapies, interventional techniques and lifestyle changes

Answer 332

Spinothalamic = fast, sharp, location-specific pain, pain signals travelling from the spinal cord up to the brain ending at the thalamus which is like the somatosensory cortex) Spinoreticular = slow, dull, emotionally charged pain, chronic pain to the reticular formation in the brain stem which influences alertness and emotional response to pain

Answer 333

In humans and non-carnivores, the spinothalamic tract dominates pain transmission. Very minor or absent - meaning it plats no role in carrying pain signals In carnivores, the spinocervicothalamic tract is a major conscious pain pathway. In carnivores Here's its pathway: Pain signals start at peripheral nociceptors (pain receptors). First-order neurons enter the spinal cord and ascend ipsilaterally (on the same side) to the cervical spinal cord (around C1–C2). They synapse in the lateral cervical nucleus. Second-order neurons then cross over (decussate) and ascend to the contralateral thalamus. The thalamus processes and sends the information to the cerebral cortex for pain perception.

Answer 334

The spinocervicothalamic tract mainly picks up on mechanical and thermal pain — that is, pain from sharp pressure, pinching, cutting, and extreme temperatures (both hot and cold). This role in humans and non-carnivores is mostly handled by the spinothalamic tract instead.

Answer 335

Its a major conscious pain pathway for them. the spinocervicothalamic tract is large and well developed in carnivores, unlike in humans where its almost non-existant. Pathway structure: Pain signals enter the spinal cord from peripheral nociceptors. They ascend ipsilaterally (on the same side) through the spinal cord to the lateral cervical nucleus (around C1–C2 vertebrae). After synapsing there, second-order neurons immediately cross over (decussate) and ascend to the thalamus. From the thalamus, signals are sent to the somatosensory cortex for conscious pain perception. What it carries: It mainly transmits mechanical and thermal pain that is well localized — like sharp, pinching, or burning pain. Why this matters: Carnivores need very fast, accurate detection of injuries during hunting, fighting, or escaping predators — so this tract evolved to give them quick, clear pain information.

Answer 336

First-order neurons: Pain signals start at nociceptors (pain receptors) in the body and travel into the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Second-order neurons: In the dorsal horn, the signals synapse with second-order neurons. Ascent in the spinal cord: These second-order neurons ascend in the anterolateral system (same region as the spinothalamic tract). Targets in the brainstem: Instead of going straight to the thalamus like the spinothalamic tract does, the spinoreticular fibers first go to the reticular formation in the brainstem — specifically in the medulla, pons, and midbrain. From the reticular formation: Some signals stay there and affect arousal, attention, and emotional responses to pain. Other signals are relayed indirectly to the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus. Final step — to the cortex: From the thalamus, information is sent to widespread areas of the cerebral cortex — especially parts involved in the emotional and motivational aspects of pain (not so much the precise location). Spinoreticular tract: spinal cord → reticular formation (brainstem) → thalamus (intralaminar nuclei) → widespread cortex It carries slow, dull, aching, poorly localized pain and ties pain to arousal and emotional experiences.

Answer 337

Information: dull, aching, throbbing pain, poorly localized pain, chromic pain sensations, emotional and behavioural responses to pain. It activates: reticular formation in the brain first (influences arousal, triggers attention and focus towards the painful stimulus, affects autonomic functions like HR and BP ), then it activates the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus, which relay information to widespread areas of the cortex (emotion, motivation and awareness)

Answer 338

Head pain uses a special direct system. Mainly travels through the trigeminal nerves and its branches not the spinal nerves. Pain enters the brain stem at the pons, they descend a little into the spinal trigeminal nucleus. After synapsing there, second order neurons cross over (decussate) and ascend to the thalamus. Head/face pain → trigeminal nerve → brainstem → up to brain

Answer 339

Non-conscious responses to pain exist because they help your body survive. When you experience pain, it’s often a signal that something is seriously wrong — like injury, bleeding, or a threat (think: predator attack, accident, etc.). The body needs to react instantly, even before you consciously process what’s happening. So, pain triggers automatic (autonomic) responses through the brainstem and hypothalamus to: Increase respiration → so your tissues get more oxygen if you need to flee or heal. Release epinephrine (adrenaline) → to boost heart rate, blood flow, and energy levels for a "fight or flight" response. Increase blood pressure → to maintain blood flow to vital organs if you’re hurt. Activate sweating → to cool the body under stress. Cause pupil dilation → to improve vision and awareness in dangerous situations. These changes are mostly driven by the reticular formation, hypothalamus, and autonomic nervous system, which work without your conscious control.

Answer 340

Periphery - right at the site of injury, before the signal even enters the nervous system Spinal cord (esp dorsal horn) - pain signals can be amplified or suppressed at the first synapse point inside the spinal cord Brain (supraspinal centres) - pain can be consciously and unconsciously modified at higher levels like the brainstem, thalamus and cortex

Answer 341

peripheral level (occurs at site of injury or in the surrounding tissues) spinal cord level (spinal modulation) - takes place in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord Supraspinal level (brain/ central modulation) - involves higher brain centres, such as the thalamus, cortex, and brainstem (PAG)

Answer 342

When tissue is damaged, cells release inflammatory mediators. These substances sensitize nociceptors, making them more likely to fire and send pain signals. Increased nociceptor sensitivity. Ion channels or nociceptor membranes become more active, even mild stimuli can now cause pain. NSAIDs are a group of medicines that relieve pain and fever and reduce inflammation. These block cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes. This inhibits the production of prostaglandins, which: sensitise nociceptors, increase blood flow and swelling. Result: less nociceptor sensitization, so less pain signal is generated. Corticosteroids (steroids) are anti-inflammatory medicines used to treat a range of conditions. These inhibit phospholipase A2, blocking the arachidonic acid pathway upstream of prostaglandin synthesis. Also suppresses the production of cytokines, like IL-1 and TNF alpha. Result: stronger anti-inflammatory effect, reducing both swelling and pain.

Answer 343

allodynia - pain from a stimulus that does not normally cause pain. hyperalgesia - an increased sensitivity to a painful stimulus, a normally painful stimulus feels more painful than usual.

Answer 344

The inhibitory interneurons between A-delta and C fibres regulate pain by dampening the signals these fibres send to second-order neurons, thus acting as a local brake on pain transmission. They do this by gate control of pain, They also release inhibitory neurotransmitters such as GABA and glycine, which: - hyperpolarize second-order neurones in the spinal cord. - inhibit transmission of pain signal from nociceptors - reduce the excitation of the ascending pain pathways. Modulated by non-painful input. rubbing a painful area and stimulating A-beta fibres can activate these interneurons. Relieving pain. Control of sensitisation. They help prevent central sensitisation - a state where the CNS becomes overly responsive to pain. Loss or dysfunction of these interneurons is implicated in chronic pain conditions.

Answer 345

While A-delta fibres are primarily excitatory for pain, they can contribute to pain inhibition indirectly by: Activating inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord Stimulating descending inhibitory pathways Temporarily outcompeting C fibre signals at the spinal level

Answer 346

Electrodes are placed on the skin over or near the area of pain. The device sends pulsed electrical currents through these electrodes. These currents stimulate sensory nerves, particularly A-beta fibres (non-painful touch/pressure fibres). Which activate inhibitory interneurons in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. These interneurons inhibit pain transmission from A-delta and C-fibres

Answer 347

Chronic pain usually originates from the CNS and the PNS. The spinal cord and brain become sensitized by a process known as central sensitization. This is where neurons become hyperexcitable and respond excessively to normal or even non-painful input. Peripheral sensitization can persist due to ongoing inflammation or nerve damage. Damaged nerves can send abnormal signals to the CNS. Two key cells involved are neurons and glial cells (especially microglia and astrocytes). Microglia in the spinal cord and brain become activated in response to nerve injury. They release pro-inflammatory cytokines, which enhance neuron excitability and prolong pain. Astrocytes also contribute by maintaining this pro-inflammatory environment. Together, they play a central role in maintaining central sensitization.

Answer 348

NDMA receptor antagonism, NDMA receptors become overactive in chronic pain, this leads to central sensitization and wind-up. Ketamine blocks NDMA receptors, reducing this abnormal neuronal activity. Interrupts pain memory. has rapid action on sever pain it can relieve opioid-resistant pain and reduce opioid tolerance.

Answer 349

suprasegmental modulation refers to the control and regulation of pain signals by brain structures located above (i.e., superior to) the spinal cord segments. 2 key nuclei of pain are periaqueductal gray (PAG) in the midbrain and Rostral ventromedial medulla. PAG - acts as a central control hub for descending pain inhibition. Receives input from the cortex and limbic system. Activates descending pathways that project to the rostral ventromedial medulla. Stimulating the PAG can powerfully suppress pain. Rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM) - receives descending input from the PAG. Sends serotonergic and opioid-sensitive projections down to the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Contains two main types of neurones on and off cells which either facilitate/inhibit pain transmission. Modulates pain up or down depending on the balance of these 2 cell types.

Answer 350

The descending pain modulation pathways originate from several supraspinal (brain) centers, with the key origin points being: cortex, periaqueductal gray, rostral ventromedial medulla, locus coeruleus (pons) cortex -emotion/cognition input to PAG PAG - master controller of descending inhibition RVM - sends inhibitory/facilitatory signals to the spinal cord LC - norepinephrine release for spinal inhibition

Answer 351

vasodilation instead of vasoconstriction, leading too warm, red, swollen skin and abnormal sweating patterns bradycardia instead of tachycardia. Slowing of HR. Pain can cause localized or asymmetrical sweating Pain-induced urinary retention or diarrhoea Pupil constriction or dilation

Answer 352

The fundamental "must-have" of any pain scale is that it is subjective and patient-reported.

Answer 353

Chronic pain is multifactorial because it arises from a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors, not just from ongoing physical injury. This is described by the biopsychosocial model. The main system involved is the central nervous system (CNS), particularly through a process called central sensitization. Key CNS Structures: Spinal cord dorsal horn: amplifies incoming pain signals Brainstem (e.g., RVM, PAG): modulates pain up or down Thalamus & cortex: process and interpret pain Limbic system (e.g., amygdala, anterior cingulate cortex): adds emotional content

Answer 354

Cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS). This is similar to dementia or Alzhemier's in humans. Animals may show: restlessness, vocalization, changes in interaction, disrupted sleep, house soiling.

Answer 355

- use a validated pain assessment tool such as the Glasgow composite measure pain scale (dogs) - if pain is suspected but unclear, a diagnostic analgesic trial can be used - observe behaviour overtime and look for changes in: activity level, grooming, appetite, interaction with people or other animals

Answer 356

Yes, pain scoring is used in cattle, but it's less standardized and more challenging compared to small animals. Issues - lack of approved analgesics - under-recognition of pain - cost concerns - culture and industry practices - limited training

Answer 357

Total dairy herd average = 30% Beef finishing cattle = 8% Beef suckler cattle = 14% Adult ewe = 3.2% Total sheep flock average = 10%

Answer 358

Environmental factors (flooring surface, standing/pooling water) Managerial factors (hoof-trimming and hygiene routine, stocking density) Individual cow factors (behaviour, gait)

Answer 359

Hoof/foot (distal limb) = white line disease, digital dermatitis, sole ulcers Hock (lower limb) = infectious or septic arthritis, friction injury due to housing Stifle (mid limb) = sciatic nerve damage, cruciate injury Hip and pelvis (upper limb) = calving paralysis, femoral nerve paralysis

Answer 360

Sole ulcer White line disease Digital dermatitis

Answer 361

The horn of the wall separates from the horn of the sole. Sometimes, there is blood staining (bruising) or infection. Look at white line disease image

Answer 362

INFECTIOUS A highly contagious, erosive infection usually affecting the skin on the bulbs of the heel but it can also be found between the digits or in the area of the coronary band.

Answer 363

A pressure point exists towards the back of the sole leading to poor horn formation and bleeding in the horn. Sole ulcers progress from sole haemorrhage.

Answer 364

Sole Ulcers - standing up for long periods on uneven uncomfortable surfaces White Line - slats - flooring Digital Dermatitis - footbaths

Answer 365

Scald - 45% Contagious ovine digital dermatitis (CODD) - 20% Foot rot - 17% Toe granuloma - 6% Toe abscess - 6% Shelly hoof - 6%

Answer 366

Interdigital Dermatitis - INFECTIOUS Red/pink inflammation of skin between toes with white/grey pasty ‘scum’ on top. Can have a strong smell. Sheep can be very lame with only minor lesions. Scald is early presentation of footrot. Look at scald image

Answer 367

INFECTIOUS A bacterial infection causing a separation of hoof horn starting in the inter-digital space. Once established, the sole horn and outer wall horn may be under-run. Common in sheep. Foot root image

Answer 368

INFECTIOUS Initially occurs at the top of the hoof (coronary band). Infection starts as a small ulcerated area at the coronary band. The infection progresses to under run the hoof horn capsule downwards towards the toe. The whole horn capsule may fall off. contagious ovine digital dermatitis image

Answer 369

Cull (if sheep has been affected twice or more) Quarantine (new or ill animals) Treat (asap) Avoid (management) Vaccinate (build flock immunity)

Answer 370

D - degenerative A - anomalous M - metabolic N - nutritional I - Inflammatory, infection, idiopathic T - traumatic, toxic

Answer 371

To create a differential diagnosis list

Answer 372

Epilepsy Stroke Tetanus Intoxication

Answer 373

LOOK AT clincal signs of BSE

Answer 374

Bovine Spongiform encephalopathy - Mad cow disease Clinical signs may not present until years after infection

Answer 375

Proteins called prions, they are abnormal and harmful Prions found in meat-and-bone meal from sheep and cattle that was prion infected Once dead their brain is tested using the BSE rapid screening test (ELISA) APHA (England, Scotland, Wales (NI is regional))

Answer 376

Brain = change in mental activity Brainstem = cranial nerve damage Spinal cord = abnormal limb movement

Answer 377

normal: Animal alert, apprehensive and curious during examination Depressed: Animal awake, not alert to surroundings, uninterested in normal stimuli (not always neurological) Obtunded: Animal dull, slow to respond, still responds appropriately Stuporous: Animal unresponsive to normal stimuli, aroused with strong stimuli Comatose: state of unconsciousness, animal cannot be aroused even with harmful stimuli (emergency) Other: abnormal behaviour, disorientated, delirious, aggressive, head-pressing, fly biting, tail charing, circling

Answer 378

reduced alertness head-pressing teeth grinding irritability blindness seizures circling head turn ataxia sensory processes heightened

Answer 379

Limb and movement deficit Abnormal behaviour

Answer 380

head tremors, bobbing exaggerated gaits (hypo/hypermetria*) = symmetric ataxia without weakness absence of menace response irregular nystagmus (vertical + horizontal) No, very rare apart from in Arabs *Under and over exaggeration of movement

Answer 381

Its a fine tuning organ so it ensures movements are exact so animals struggle to co-ordinate themselves and will have either short or exaggerated movements often missing they target

Answer 382

Issues with the cranial nerves

Answer 383

Peripheral (whee the nerve ends up) = only 1 damaged Central (all the nerve roots close together) = impacts multiple nerves

Answer 384

Put smelly sweet food in your pocket and see if the horse is interested and trying to get into your pocket

Answer 385

menace response pupillary light reflex obstacle course or visual tracking

Answer 386

Retina Detects visual stimulus and sends signal via CN II. Optic Chiasm and Optic Tract Transmit signals to the contralateral side of the brain. Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) of the Thalamus Relay station for visual information headed to the cortex. Visual Cortex (Occipital Lobe) Processes visual information and perceives the threat. Motor Cortex Initiates the motor response to the perceived threat (e.g., blinking). Corticopontine and Pontocerebellar Fibers Coordinate voluntary movement by relaying signals to the cerebellum. Cerebellum (especially the flocculonodular lobe) Coordinates and fine-tunes the blink response. Facial Nucleus in the Brainstem Sends the efferent signal via the Facial nerve (CN VII) to the orbicularis oculi muscle.

Answer 387

No, the menace response is not reliably present in foals younger than 10–14 days of age. As it is a learned reflex, not innate

Answer 388

optic nerve - afferent limb oculomotor nerve - efferent limb

Answer 389

If the menace response test is not done properly, you can accidentally stimulate the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V)—specifically the ophthalmic branch (V1). Due to air movement or touching of the eyelash

Answer 390

The dazzle reflex checks the function of the optic nerve (cranial nerve II) and parts of the brainstem, particularly: optic nerve - afferent limb facial nerve - efferent limb the rostral colliculus (in the midbrain is a key subcortical centre involved in the dazzle reflex)

Answer 391

cooling of blood to the brain (lies adjacent to the internal and external carotid arteries) Pressure equalization between the pharynx and the middle ear possibly a resonance chamber to enhance vocal sounds, though this is speculative

Answer 392

The guttural pouch can lead to issues with cranial nerves because several important nerves pass through or along the walls of the guttural pouch. When the pouch becomes infected, inflamed, or damaged (e.g., by mycosis or empyema), these nerves can be compressed, inflamed, or invaded, resulting in clinical signs.

Answer 393

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Answer 394

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Answer 395

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Answer 396

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Answer 397

Abnormal protrusion of the eye from the orbit (globe is protruding but normal in size) side note: can be identified by looking from above or assessing retropulsion (push on globe via upper eyelid (doesn’t work well on animals with shallow orbits))

Answer 398

Abnormal recession of the eye within the orbit (globe is sunken but remains normal size)

Answer 399

Enlargement of the globe but maintains normal position within the orbit

Answer 400

Congenitally* abnormal (small) eye but remains in the normal position within the orbit *from birth

Answer 401

Cavity within the skull that the eye sits in It protects and separates the eye from the cranial cavity The foramina provide pathways for blood vessels and nerves to reach the eye

Answer 402

Open = Incomplete - has a lateral orbital ligament - found in carnivores (and pigs) Closed = Incomplete - fusion of zygomatic and frontal bones - found in herbivores

Answer 403

Herbivores = monocular vision Carnivores = binocular vision

Answer 404

Bony cone and soft tissue floor

Answer 405

Allows their jaw to be opened wider

Answer 406

brachycephalic, mesocephalic, dolichocephalic

Answer 407

5-7, species dependant The frontal, lacrimal and zygomatic bones Soft tissue structures Look at 3 bones image

Answer 408

1- frontal bone 2- zygomatic process 3 - zygomatic bone 4 - maxilla

Answer 409

Medial limit - frontal lobe (thin, operates obit + nasal cavity) Dorsal limit - frontal sinus Rostral and lateral limits - zygomatic, lacrimal and maxillary bones (make up orbital rim) Caudal limit - sphenoid bone (optical canal + orbital fissure pass through)

Answer 410

Dorsolateral limit - temporal muscle and orbital ligament Rostral and lateral limit - masseter muscle Ventral floor - pterygoid muscles

Answer 411

8 different foramina which creates interspecies variation

Answer 412

Optic nerve Internal ophthalmic artery

Answer 413

Oculomotor nerve Abducens nerve Trochlear nerve Ophthalmic nerve

Answer 414

Oculomotor (lll) - Dorsal rectus, Medial rectus, Ventral rectus, Ventral oblique Abducens (Vl) - Lateral rectus, Retractor bulbi Trochlear (lV) - Dorsal oblique

Answer 415

Intraconal - 4 rectus muscles enveloped in a periorbital fascial sheath (also content nerves vessels, smooth muscle, fat and the orbital lacrimal gland) Extraconal - any remaining soft tissue structures

Answer 416

The eye has high metabolic activity so has a rich blood supply from branches of the ophthalmic artery which in most mammals comes form the internal carotid artery. They supply the highly vascular uveal tract.

Answer 417

Most is through the vortex veins and orbital venous plexus Small alternative route in the ophthalmic vein All eventually drain to the external jugular vein

Answer 418

BS - ocular damage common with systematic hypertension (high bp) - systematic disease causing uveitis (inflammation of uveal tract) VD - orbital venous plexus well formed in rabbits so must be cautious when enucleating (removing entire globe) - excess restraint around neck affecting intraocular pressure measurements

Answer 419

Nasal cavity + Paranasal sinuses Caudal roots of 4th premolar + 1st/2nd molar teeth Brain Temporal + Massester muscles Zygomatic salivary glands

Answer 420

anisocoria - when one pupil is larger than the other miosis - excessive constriction/ shrinking of the pupil Mydriasis - unusual dilation of the pupil strabismus - eyes do not align. One is turned I another direction to the other Nystagmus - rapid, involuntary eye movement

Answer 421

When open it moves towards the globe, the there is orbital disease this can cause the dog pain when trying to open its jaw

Answer 422

Eyelids Opening between the eyelids

Answer 423

3 layers 1. haired eyelid, skin on outer surface (outside) 2. muscle extending to a fibrous tarsal plate containing meibomian glands (middle) 3. palpebral conjunctiva on inner surface (inside)

Answer 424

The orbicular oculi - facial nerve (Vll)

Answer 425

Levatator palpebral superiors - oculomotor nerve (lll) Muller muscle (smooth muscle) - sympathetic innervation Several others with innervation from facial nerve (Vll)

Answer 426

Afferent = T1 - L3 Efferent = C8 and T1 (lateral thoracic nerve)

Answer 427

S1 - S2 S3 - Cd5

Answer 428

Ascending= Crossing - Abduction - Circumduction - Knuckling Descending = Foot dragging - Stumbling

Answer 429

Ataxia = abnormal patterns in different limbs Lameness = regular irregular movement in the same limb

Answer 430

Standing = lower motoneurons (extensor reflex L3 - 5 in young horses) Walking = Upper motoneurons and the descending tracts

Answer 431

smooth striated cardiac

Answer 432

Striated Syncytium (multiple nuclei) Peripheral nuclei Arranged into bundles known as fascicles Very large and long

Answer 433

Epimysium - surrounds entire muscle Perimysium - surrounds bundles of muscle fibres Endomysium - surrounds individual muscle fibres

Answer 434

Has a functional role, transferring information from the muscle to the tendons and a protective function as slightly stronger than muscle so can protect it from damage and tearing

Answer 435

individual muscle fibre

Answer 436

Actin and myosin

Answer 437

I band - actin filaments alone A band - zones containing myosin Z line - defines boundary between sarcomeres M-line - transverse line in the middle of the sarcomere that binds the myosin filaments

Answer 438

Muscle shortening occurs due to movement of the actin filament over the myosin filament. This forms cross-bridges between the actin and myosin. It also reduces the distance between the Z-lines of the sarcomere.

Answer 439

Located along the 2 chains of actin filaments and has interactions with calcium that allow or prevent cross-bridge formation.

Answer 440

Complex attached to each tropomyosin

Answer 441

Sacrolemma - muscle cell membrane Myofibrils - tube structures that pack the fibres Myofilaments - actin and myosin

Answer 442

Cross-bridges forming, releasing and reforming between the actin and myosin

Answer 443

Troponin captures Ca2+ and undergoes a conformational change that lifts tropomyosin away from the actin filament revealing the binding site for myosin driving cross-bridge formation.

Answer 444

When calcium is low it blocks the binding of myosin to the actin fibre at rest

Answer 445

No Cardiac muscle doesn’t fatigue Skeletal muscle can be fatigue resistant or will fatigue very quickly

Answer 446

type 1 fibres (slow-twitch) type 2 fibres (fast-twitch)

Answer 447

muscle biopsy - different staining techniques help differentiate type 1 and 2 fibres based on enzyme activity and colour immunohistochemistry - Uses antibodies that bind specifically to different myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms found in Type I and II fibres. gel electrolysis - separates muscle proteins based on size

Answer 448

1- type 1 fibres (light brown/ tan in the stain) 2- type 2a fibres - medium brown 3- type 2b or 2x - dark brown/black

Answer 449

Yes, muscle fibre types can vary significantly between animal species, both in their distribution and functional characteristics. While the basic classification of muscle fibres (Type I, Type IIa, IIx/b) is broadly conserved, several species-specific differences exist:

Answer 450

Muscle fatigue is the decline in the muscle’s ability to generate force or power over time during sustained activity. Muscle fatigue is multifactorial, meaning several physiological processes contribute depending on intensity, duration, and muscle fibre type. Causes can be grouped as follows: central (neural) fatigue, peripheral (muscular) fatigue, fibre type resistance

Answer 451

Yes, fiber-type composition in muscles can be altered, though it is a slow and somewhat limited process.

Answer 452

Distal to carpus/tarsus joint all the way to the end of the distal phalanges

Answer 453

a Limb elongation and reduced mass

Answer 454

look at answer

Answer 455

answered version

Answer 456

MCP joint PIP joint DIP joint

Answer 457

Dorso-lateral aspect Dropping of elbow and knuckling Common digital extensor

Answer 458

Dorso-lateral aspect Long digital extensor

Answer 459

Muscles at top as the are heaviest and then tendons running down for support of the lower limb

Answer 460

Extensors = 1, radial Flexors = 2, median and ulnar

Answer 461

Extensors of hock, flexors of digits = 1, fibula Flexors of hock, extensors of digits = 1, tubular

Answer 462

Palmer/plantar aspect of both fore and hind Superficial digital flexor tendon Deep digital flexor tendon

Answer 463

Subcutaneous and palpable Distal end of P1 splits and insets on P2 Manica flexoria Flexes whole digit and stabilises fetlock

Answer 464

Deep to SDFT Passes through the maniac flexor and inset onto the flexor tuberosity of each functional distal phalanx

Answer 465

Third/middle interosseous muscle/Suspensory ligament - sesamoid ligament AND Accessory check ligament (TIOM) Completely tendinous

Answer 466

third interosseous muscle/suspensory ligament, prevents excessive extension of the fetlock

Answer 467

The third interosseous muscle originates on the distal aspect of the metacarpal/metatarsal bone, running down the limb toward the sesamoid bones. From the origin, it travels downward, passing distally around the cannon bone and attaching to the proximal sesamoid bones at the back of the limb. In its course, the third interosseous muscle serves as a suspensory ligament in horses, playing a role in supporting the digital flexor tendons and preventing excessive extension of the fetlock joint during movement. The third interosseous muscle originates on the distal aspect of the metacarpal/metatarsal bone, running down the limb toward the sesamoid bones. From the origin, it travels downward, passing distally around the cannon bone and attaching to the proximal sesamoid bones at the back of the limb. In its course, the third interosseous muscle serves as a suspensory ligament in horses, playing a role in supporting the digital flexor tendons and preventing excessive extension of the fetlock joint during movement.

Answer 468

check ligaments, stabilize and support certain tendons, primarily in the forelimb and hindlimb.

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