notes final Flashcards

Question

The Functionalist Approach

Answer 1

-Emphasizes the role of the environment in emotional development -Proposes that the basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal -Maintains that emotions are not discrete from one another and vary somewhat based on the social environment

Answer 2

Cognition and experience shape emotional development

Answer 3

-Social smiles Infant smiles in response to social interaction 2 months (4-10 w) -Still-Face (Tronick et al.) Infants

Answer 4

0-2 mom social smiles and generalized destress 2 months social smiles In response to human interaction 3-4 months tickle laughs smiling in response to play or enjoyable activity 7 months familiar vs unfamiliar wariness change to fear, fear of strangers 8 months separation anxiety, fear of strangers decreasing after 2 years 6-12 mon unexpected events funny

Answer 5

-EI is a better predictor than IQ of how well people will do in life, especially in their social lives. -Mischel (1988) Preschoolers' abilities to delay gratification were found to predict their social, emotional, and academic competence many years later.

Answer 6

-What is emotional regulation? -Process of initiating, inhibiting, or modulating internal feeling states, emotion-related physiological processes, and emotion-related cognitions or behaviours in the service of accomplishing one's goals. TRANSITIONAL OBJECTS

Answer 7

1. Recognizing 2. Controlling

Answer 8

Self-conscious emotions Involves feelings such as embarrassment, pride, guilt, and shame that relate to sense of self and consciousness of others‘ reactions to us 15 to 24 months of age, some children start to show embarrassment when they are made the center of attention. Situations likely to induce self-conscious emotions in children vary somewhat across cultures.

Answer 9

Individual differences in emotion, activity level, and attention that are exhibited across contexts and that are present from infancy and thus thought to be genetically based (e.g. different reactions to the same situation)

Answer 10

-The first step in the development of emotional knowledge is the recognition of different emotions in others. -By 4 to 7 months, infants can distinguish certain emotional expressions, such as happiness and surprise -At 8 to 12 months, children demonstrate social referencing

Answer 11

By 8-12 months, infants use the social expressions of others to modify or alter their behavior in an uncertain situation.

Answer 12

Defining attachment Historical trajectory of the concept Measurements and evidence Cross-cultural validity

Answer 13

An emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across space and time.

Answer 14

-Extended period of dependency -Allows for social bond (and social learning, communication) -Caregiver responsiveness – timely, appropriate, responding to infant bids

Answer 15

Responsive Timely Appropriate -In infancy, this is specific: Contingency Mirroring Infant directed speech

Answer 16

Observations of children in orphanages Video observations of children in orphanages (Spitz, 1946) Harry Harlow bowlbys attachment theory Mary aisnworth

Answer 17

-Physical care & nutrition is insufficient -Institutional care in the first years of life typically: -hinders optimal social, emotional and cognitive development Evidence: Orphanages, Renee Spitz (1930’s and 40’s) Refugee children (WWII), Bowlby (1953) Romanian Orphanage & adoptions, Ames (1990’s)

Answer 18

-Attachment system between an infant and mother is a long-ago evolved system -Human bond is ancient and evolved during the period of “environment of evolutionary adaptation” (EEA) -Children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival T-he mother is the secure base providing an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible to explore the environment.

Answer 19

-Extensive observations of infants in US and Uganda -Observations during brief separations and reunions with caregivers -Allows insight into the quality of the attachment relationship – the extent to which the child could use the adult as a secure base,

Answer 20

-developed by Ainsworth -Used to assess infants’ attachment to primary caregivers. -Seven episodes -including 2 separations and reunions with the caregiver I-nteractions with a stranger when alone and when caregiver is present

Answer 21

-Secure attachment Child has had a high-quality, relatively unambivalent relationship with his or her attachment figure. 2/3 of American middle class children -Insecure -Insecure resistant (or ambivalent) attachment Infants and young children are clingy and stay close to the caregiver rather than explore environment. -Insecure avoidant attachment Infants and young children seem indifferent and sometimes avoid cargiver. -Disorganized / disoriented No consistent way of coping with the stress of the strange situation

Answer 22

-Preattachment (0 – 6wks) Infant produces innate signals that bring others to his/her side and is comforted by the interactions. -Attachment-in-the-making (6wks – 8 mos) Infants begin to respond preferentially to familiar people. -Clear-cut attachment (8 mos – 1 ½ - 2 yrs) Infants actively seek contact with his/her caregiver and shows ‘separation protest or distress’ when the caregiver departs. [SEPARATION ANXIETY] -Reciprocal relationships (1 ½ - 2 yrs …) Active role in developing working partnerships with caregivers.

Answer 23

-An enduring emotional tie uniting the infant and the caregiver. -Internal working model of attachment – a mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general. -Guides children’s interactions with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages.

Answer 24

3 groups: Romanian orphanage Early Adoption Canadian Born Measured cognitive, motor and social/emotional milestones as reported from parent, tested by experimenter and observed during home visits.

Answer 25

Results: Foster care placement <24 mos = fared better on attachment outcomes High cog status = better attachment outcomes in CAU Findings/Interpretation: Evidence for a sensitive/critical period in development Mediated by cognitive status

Answer 26

-Bonding to a nurturing mother is essential to mental health and normal development in primates, and the blueprint bond from which all other attachments are modeled -Deprived monkeys of social interactions -Findings with cloth vs wire mothers indicates that there is more to parenting than food and survival

Answer 27

Study 1 – cloth / wire mothers Study 2 – total isolation Study 3 – critical periods

Answer 28

½ monkeys were raised with a cloth, non-nutritive mother; ½ monkeys were raised with a wire, nutritive mother. Monkeys showed a preference for the cloth, non-nutritive monkey, spending most of their time on the cloth doll while feeding on the wire doll.

Answer 29

Total social isolation resulted in aggressive and antisocial behavioral tendencies. Females who were raised in isolation became ‘bad’ mothers – neglecting and abusing their offspring.

Answer 30

The number of days an infant monkey was raised in isolation impacted their behavior when entering into social groups.

Answer 31

1. Monotropy: infants have an innate and inborn capacity to attach primarily to a single caregiver or attachment figure. 2.Stranger Anxiety: emerging around 8 months, infants begin to show distress toward unfamiliar others; may be culturally variable. 3.Definition of attachment: hierarchical model with mothers at the top.

Answer 32

-Ethnographic evidence questions the basic tenets of attachment theory -Multiple caregivers -Stranger anxiety -Mothers as one among many caregivers (not hierarchical)

Answer 33

-Understanding others’ minds Theory of mind False belief Perspective taking -Understanding the self (in relation to others and the world)

Answer 34

a. What is it? b. How has it been studied? c. What are some main findings in the literature regarding theory of mind development? d. What are the different theoretical perspectives?

Answer 35

The ability to attribute mental states to the self and others. The ability to know that others can have mental states that are different from your own. e.g.) beliefs, desires, intentions. An essential part of human psychology. Beliefs – your knowledge Desires – what you want Intentions – your goals

Answer 36

-The self is distinct from others Self-other distinction unfolds rapidly over the first 2 years of life -My thoughts, beliefs, desires, and intentions may be different than yours. E.g. Cookie example from your textbook

Answer 37

-Explicit ToM tasks: False-belief (sally-ann) tasks Change of location Surprise content -Implicit theory of mind tasks w/ infants -Adult interviews and experiments

Answer 38

-Spontaneous response task Establish longer looking time – Matched / unmatched pictures -Test: Looking time at pause

Answer 39

-Cultural norms surrounding discussing mental states -Claim that one can never know what another is thinking -Therefore the goal of attaining a ‘theory of mind’ is not applicable or may have a different developmental trajectory

Answer 40

-Mayer & Trauble, 2014 Samoan children Two separate studies Age range, large N Cultural differences

Answer 41

-H1 –ON TIME If universal, children may improve significantly between 3 and 5 years Could be sensitive to socio-cultural factors such as: -H2 – LATER opacity of the mind therefore later ToM -H3 – EARLIER multiple children playing together (possible sibling effect) = earlier ToM

Answer 42

Study 1 3-14 yr olds (n=288) 186 Savai’i (traditional) 102 Upolu (less traditional – block houses) Classic false belief task Change of location task “Where will the child look for (su’e) the item?” Results H2 supported: later ToM Study 2 4- 8 yrs 55 children (which island?) Replication w/ different linguistic term Su’e: sometimes means ‘find’ “Touch first” Results H2 supported: later ToM Linguistic goal: to communicate “where will he look for” Linguistic reality: “where will he find” Study 2 “which cup will he touch first”

Answer 43

-Synchrony in the onset of mental state understanding across diverse societies: Peru, India, Canada, Samoa, Thailand

Answer 44

-Theoretical perspectives Socio-cultural perspective Nativist perspective -Methods Implicit false belief Explicit false belief -Self–other distinction -Cross-cultural variability (and interpretations)

Answer 45

1. Developmental psychology research may not represent human development (representation and generalizability) 2. There are similarities and differences across cultures in child development 3. The cultural differences are not well understood or explained

Answer 46

the weirdest people in the world -pulled out all the paper that were cross cultural -if info in textbooks were generalizable for all societies -traditional textbook or Psych articles are based on urban English societies -people in other societies are performing differently -our science is not generalizable

Answer 47

-since this paper was written, have we been doing a better job? no -we are still only testing about 5% of our population -this is a problem because we aren't representing the worlds whole population

Answer 48

this is problem because it is unscientific and unethical and a problem to assume that is represents the rest of the world.

Answer 49

why an dhow to incorporate culture into development science -most of the research is based on a small subset of the world population -their potential could be way further then were assuming

Answer 50

milestones are used to see if babies are in the typical range to develop those milestones -new research that done have all the milestones like skipping crawling -or they outside of the range that exists -we could be missing out on important information about how these milestones occur. -we're not fully understand the complex interaction between early experience and biology -range of possibilities that we don't know.

Answer 51

anthropology of childhood early developmental experiences look very different when you look around the. globe. disconnect from what the anthropologist are saying and from the developmental psychologists. lack of directed teaching and language exposure why is there a disconnect between the anthropologists

Answer 52

Cultural differences in infant attention and activity We examined infant activity level and attention in 45 infants living in two diverse socio-cultural contexts: rural island societies in the South Pacific (n = 21) and urban Western societies in North America (n = 24). Infants were 8.8 months old (range 6-12 months, SD = 2.07). Infants and mothers were observed for ten minutes in a face-to-face interaction and later coded for activity level and attention. We identified and compared the frequency of infants’ motor movements, such as rolling over and crawling, as well as, any shift in their gaze. Our results indicate that infants living in urban cities in North America produced more frequent motor movements and shifted their gaze more frequently than infants living in rural, island societies in the South Pacific. We suspect these differences reflect differences in early social experience as well as different ecological niches. These findings highlight the complex interplay of development and experience, starting in the first few months of life.

Answer 53

social experience is effecting infants as early ad 8 months of age

Answer 54

The ways that fathers modify their speech when addressing infants is culturally dependent. they changed the average pitch of the speech but North American fathers didn't adjust their speech. -infant directed speech. is culturally dependent.

Answer 55

-Where does our morality come from? -What are the developmental stages of moral development according to Piaget, according to Kohlberg? -Developmental trajectory – influence of parenting and early experience? -Individual differences -Prosocial behaviors

Answer 56

-Morals refer to an individual's own principles regarding right and wrong -Moral reasoning and outcome: different ways individuals can understand an act. -individual temperament -what is right and wrong, everyone has their own beliefs -how we understand morality in others

Answer 57

conscience- be concerned about acting in a moral manner and feel guilty when they are not acting know right from wrong know why certain actions are moral and immoral

Answer 58

-Influence of Peers > Influence of Adults -Children learn via Games with peers -Outcome - Intention becomes more important -Possibly underestimated children’s propensity to factor in intentions

Answer 59

Heteronomous morality: < 7 yrs, rules, laws -Possibly due to cognitive belief that rules are things that exist outside of the mind -Possibly due to social experience with parents placing rules (not sure about this one, given that there’s such variation in parenting)

Answer 60

The Transition Period: 7/8 - 10 yrs, learning through peer interactions -More egalitarian play & give and take -They begin to value fairness and equality

Answer 61

Autonomous Morality: 11/12yrs, rules are products of social agreement and can be changed if the majority of a group agrees to do so. -Fairness and equality important factors when constructing rules -Punishments should fit the crime -Motives and intentions matter

Answer 62

Morality of constraint (younger than 7 or 8 years) -Children see rules as unchangeable and non-negotiable. -A rule is a rule because an authority figure says it is. -Children overlook intentions of the actor; morality is evaluated in terms of objective consequences. Transitional period (between 7 and 10 years) -Children spend more time with peers and learn that rules can be changed. -Children learn how to appreciate another person’s perspective and consider intentions. Autonomous morality (older than 10 years) -Children believe that rules are social contracts that can be negotiated and re-negotiated. -They consider multiple people and perspectives.

Answer 63

Theory: -Moral reasoning is the basis for ethical behavior. -A stage theory. ‘Reasoning’ refers to the ways in which you solve an ethical dilemma. Piaget and Kohlberg studied moral reasoning in young children and adolescents.

Answer 64

Interview -Males (starting b/t 10-16 yrs) -Longitudinal (every 3 years for 20 years) -Moral Dilemmas (stories presenting a conflict b/t two moral values) -“What should the actor do and why?”

Answer 65

In Europe, a woman was near death from cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. A druggist in the same town had discovered it, but he was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. The sick woman’s husband Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money but he could only get together half of what it cost. The druggist refused to sell the drug for less or let Heinz pay later. So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have done that? Why? Think about the following dilemma. What’s happening? Which values are Kohlberg pitting against one another? Obeying the law and the value of human life.

Answer 66

Kohlberg: The way an individual reasons, not the content of the response. Important factors 1) actively grappling with moral issues and noticing weaknesses in one’s reasoning 2) gaining perspective taking – enabling the resolution of moral conflicts in more effective ways. As we go through the stages, think about ‘perspective taking’

Answer 67

Pre-conventional reasoning (Stage 1 and 2) 1. -Children are focused on punishment and how to avoid it. 2. -Children follow the law in order to avoid or to mitigate punishment. Conventional reasoning (Stage 3 and 4) 3. -Children recognize that rules are social contracts and follow rules and laws in order to preserve and promote 4. social relationships and social order. Post-conventional reasoning (Stage 5 and 6) 5-6 -Reasoning according to ideals or moral principles.

Answer 68

-too masculine focused not enough on caring and emphasis Gilligan argued on feminism work

Answer 69

-Gilligan (1982) argued that feminine morality emphasizes an ‘ethic of care’ -Women in U.S. & Canada use these moral reasoning tools more than men: -Caring -Responsiveness -Empathetic Perspective Taking -Men either focus on justice or both justice and care, rarely privileging ‘care’.

Answer 70

-Assessing other’s goals, intentions, desires, beliefs. -Acting appropriately (rectifying the situation), at a cost to oneself -Should we punish others who hinder? Kiley Hamlin’s research (UBC) suggests that even 8 month olds do this!

Answer 71

Prosocial behavior: -helpful action that benefits other people without necessarily providing any direct benefits to the person performing the act, and may even involve a risk for the person who helps Altruism: -behavior that reflects an unselfish concern for the welfare of others – often involves some personal cost

Answer 72

-Begins with the capacity for empathy and sympathy (altruistic motives) -Empathy: an emotional response to another’s emotional state or condition (e.g. sadness, poverty). -Sympathy: is a feeling of concern for another in response to the other’s emotional state or condition.

Answer 73

14 months: -children become emotionally distressed when they see other people who are upset -Children show concern for an adult who has been hurt 18-25 months: -Children share a personal object with an adult whom they saw being harmed by another 2-4 yrs -Helping: Children will help someone get something out of reach

Answer 74

-Sharing resources, helping others and comforting: Children are ready to engage in these behaviors around the same age, but there are individual differences in the spontaneous propensity to do so (see textbook).

Answer 75

Two conditions – experimental and control Two age groups – 3 and 5 Manipulated the INTENTION of the experimenter (likes cans picked up, doesn’t like cans picked up) Procedure: Cans fall; she isn’t looking… what do the kids do? (proactive) (note in reactive she reaches)

Answer 76

-200 x 3-7 year olds -Seven societies -How does a sense of fairness develop?

Answer 77

-Children become more prosocial with age -Self-focus shift to an other-focus shift from 3 to 5 years of being less selfish

notes final Flashcards

(104 cards)