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Nutri Sci 332 > NS 332: Exam 2 > Flashcards

NS 332: Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the digestive system?

A

A series of organs coordinated to facilitate nutrient intake and absorb into the bloodstream

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2
Q

Where does digestion start?

A

Mouth

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3
Q

Which enzyme is used to break down glycosidic bonds (carbohydrates)?

A

Amylase

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4
Q

What chemical does the stomach secrete in order to denature proteins?

A

HCl - Hydrochloric acid (Aids in the process of digestion and absorption)

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5
Q

What is the function of protease?

A

An enzyme to break down proteins into smaller polypeptides or amino acids (Secreted by the stomach)

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6
Q

The mixture that leaves the stomach for the small intestine is called ____?

A

Chyme

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7
Q

Which nutrient starts its breakdown in the mouth?

A

Carbohydrates

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8
Q

What is the primary function of the epiglottis?

A

To block the larynx and protect the airway during swallowing

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9
Q

How is chyme produced?

A

Food churns, mixes with acid and enzymes, and grinds in the stomach

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10
Q

Where does chyme go after the stomach?

A

Through the pyloric sphincter to the small intestine, in small amounts

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11
Q

What are three functions of muscles in the digestive system?

A
  1. Sphincter contractions
  2. Segmentation
  3. Peristalsis
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12
Q

Where does most digestion and absorption occur?

A

Small intestine

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13
Q

Glucose is taken up by the enterocytes through _____.

A

Active transport

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14
Q

Fructose is taken up by the enterocytes through _____.

A

Facilitated transport. Moves with conc. gradient. Fructose is transported by GLUT5 transporter

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15
Q

What do goblet cells do in the intestinal lining?

A

Secrete mucus

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16
Q

What is the single layer of cells forming the mucosa of the intestine?

A

Intestinal epithelial cells

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17
Q

The secretion and motility functions of the digestive system are coordinated by which two systems?

A

Nervous system and hormonal system

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18
Q

When water-soluble nutrients, like glucose and amino acids, are absorbed across the enterocytes, they are released into the ____, and are delivered to the liver, through the portal vein.

A

blood

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19
Q

When water-soluble nutrients, like glucose and amino acids, are absorbed across the enterocytes, they are released into the blood, and are delivered to the _____, through the portal vein.

A

liver

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20
Q

When water-soluble nutrients, like glucose and amino acids, are absorbed across the enterocytes, they are released into the blood, and are delivered to the liver, through the _____.

A

Portal vein

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21
Q

What is the enzyme used to break down starch?

A

Pancreatic amylase

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22
Q

What enzyme is used to break down dextrin?

A

Isomaltase

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23
Q

What enzyme is used to break down triglycerides?

A

Lipase

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24
Q

What enzyme is used to break down protein?

A

Pepsin

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25
Q

How long is the small intestine?

A

20 ft long

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26
Q

Where are bile acids produced?

A

Liver

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27
Q

Where are bile acids stored?

A

Gallbladder

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28
Q

Where are digestive enzymes (small intestine) produced?

A

Pancreas

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29
Q

How long is the large intestine?

A

3.5 ft

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30
Q

What is the “central hub” of digestive physiology?

A

Liver

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31
Q

What happens during swallowing?

A

reflex initiated by the voluntary movement of food from the mouth to the pharynx

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32
Q

What is unique about pepsin?

A

Protease that functions at a very low pH to break peptide bonds

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33
Q

What is peristalsis?

A

mechanism of how the GI tract propels food through itself, beginning in the esophagus. It is a sweeping motion that helps propel food forward. It happens during swallowing, in the stomach, and small sections of the small intestine

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34
Q

What happens in the esophagus?

A

Food enters through the Upper esophageal sphincter (UES) and then peristalsis pushes the food down to the Lower esophageal sphincter (LES) which closes the distal end of the esophagus and blocks reflux of stomach contents back into the esophagus.

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35
Q

What is the stomach?

A

very muscular organ that creates chyme and allows for the breakdown of nutrients, using HCl, pepsin, gastric lipase, and the intrinsic factor.

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36
Q

What is gastroesophageal reflux disease?

A

A condition in which the lower esophageal sphincter is loose. Stomach contents reflux back up into the esophagus. The acid content irritates the lower esophagus.

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37
Q

What three drugs help to combat (not treat) GERD?

A
  1. Neutralize acid (antacid), 2. Block acid secretion, 3. Proton pump inhibitor. These drugs block acid secretion
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38
Q

How long does it take for food to make it through the small intestine?

A

3-10 hours

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39
Q

What is the lumen? How are villi related?

A

The lumen is the inside of the small intestine. Villi are the small folds inside of it

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40
Q

Why are the villi of the lumen highly pleated?

A

Villi are highly pleated to increase surface area by over 600 times. Increased interaction with food and increased opportunity for absorption.

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41
Q

What four things allow the small intestine to be as successful as it is at absorption of nutrients?

A
  1. Surrounded by longitudinal and circular muscle
  2. Rich blood supply
  3. Receives digestive enzymes and bicarbonate from the exocrine pancreas
  4. Receives bile acids from the liver via the gallbladder
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42
Q

Where does the small intestine receive bile acids?

A

From the gallbladder (produced in the liver)

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43
Q

What are crypt cells?

A

Crypt cells are cells surrounding the “crypts” that form in the villi structure. The crypt cells do not project out into the lumen. Stem cells are located at the bottom of the crypt.

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44
Q

What happens in turnover of epithelial cells of the lining?

A

Happens every three-five days. Stem cells that replenish these epithelial cells are down at the bottom of the crypt. Cells migrate from the crypt up the lumen

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45
Q

What are the four cell types?

A

Enterocytes, goblet cells, enteroendocrine cells, and paneth cells

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46
Q

What is the purpose of an enterocyte?

A

This type is the majority of the small intestine. It is used for digestion and absorption.

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47
Q

What is the purpose of a goblet cell?

A

Goblet cells secrete mucin for protection of the epithelial surface and lubrication for the passage of food.

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48
Q

What is the purpose of an enteroendocrine cell?

A

Hormone secretion

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49
Q

What is the purpose of a paneth cell?

A

Immune monitoring

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50
Q

What does the large intestine receive from the small intestine? What does it do with this material?

A

Leftover food residue from the small intestine. It begins to form fecal material

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51
Q

What does the large population of bacteria in the large intestine do?

A

These digest dietary fiber and can produce short chain fatty acids that can be absorbed into the blood stream.

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52
Q

Where are water and minerals absorbed?

A

Large intestine

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53
Q

How long does the transit of food take through the large intestine?

A

up to 3 days

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54
Q

What does frequency of bowel movements depend on?

A

Microbiome, food intake, genetics, etc.

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55
Q

What is the function of the rectum?

A

stores and expels feces via the anus

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56
Q

What three things help control gastrointestinal function?

A
  1. Autonomic nervous system
  2. GI hormones
  3. GI Motility
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57
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A

Branch of nervous system that regulates function of visceral organs

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58
Q

How do GI hormones assist with the control of GI function?

A

Released in response to meals to help with GI motility, regulation of GI function, and epithelial cell growth. These hormones are regulated to maintain homeostasis

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59
Q

What is segmentation?

A

Closely spaced contractions in discrete areas of the intestine that act to mix the chyme with digestive secretions and increase contact with the mucosal surface

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60
Q

What is mass movement?

A

Mass movement happens in the large intestine. It involves contractions that occur over a large area of intestine that act to move the waste towards the rectum

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61
Q

What is the gland and secretion for the mouth? What is the purpose of this secretion?

A

Salivary glands that secrete saliva. Saliva helps ease swallowing and salivary enzymes break down carbs

62
Q

What are the glands and secretion for the stomach? What is the purpose of this secretion

A

Gastric glands to secrete gastric juice. Fluid mixes and and HCl denatures proteins, mucus protects stomach cells.

63
Q

What are the two secretions (and organs that secrete them) for the small intestine?

A
  1. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice. The bicarbonate neutralizes acidic gastric juices, pancreatic enzymes break down carbs, fats, and proteins
  2. The gallbladder secretes bile (from the liver). Bile emulsifies fat so that enzymes can have access to break it down
64
Q

What is the secretion for the gallbladder and what secretes it?

A

The liver secretes bile that targets the gallbladder. Here, the bile is stored until needed in the small intestine

65
Q

Rank saliva, gastric juice, bile, and pancreatic juice from basic to acidic.

A

Bile, pancreatic juice, saliva, and gastric juice

66
Q

How does salivary amylase break down carbohydrates?

A

In the mouth, salivary amylase begins to break alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds from amylose and amylopectin (Does not break alpha 1,6 bonds)

67
Q

How does amylase convert amylose/ amylopectin into dextrins?

A

Small pieces of starch polymers containing alpha 1,4 and alpha 1,6. Dextrins are further broken down by brush border enzymes

68
Q

What is the brush border?

A

Organization of microvilli on enterocytes looks like a fuzzy layer. This membrane is studded with glycosidases that break down dextrin.

69
Q

What is lactose intolerance?

A

No production of the enzyme lactase. Most common in Asia, Africa, and the Mediterranean

70
Q

True or false: Monosaccharides are the only carbohydrate absorbed in the intestine.

A

True. Glucose and galactose are actively transported by the Na+ dependent transport protein (goes uphill against concentration gradient

71
Q

What does GLUT2 do?

A

Basal transporter that moves glucose, galactose, and fructose out of the cell and into the blood. It moves with the concentration gradient.

72
Q

Where does protein digestion start and what happens during the process?

A

Starts in the stomach. HCl denatures proteins. Pepsin is released and breaks apart proteins into pieces. Small intestine is where the majority of protein digestion and amino acid absorption occur. The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes/ bicarbonate into the small intestine. These enzymes hydrolyze peptide bonds producing oligopeptides

73
Q

How are amino acids absorbed?

A

Amino acids are transported across the intestinal cell membrane by brush border transporters (active and facilitate transport). Further breakdown can occur inside the cells. Transporters then move the amino acids and small peptides out of the basal region of the cell and into the blood.

74
Q

How are lipids digested?

A

Starts in the stomach with gastric lipase. It hydrolyzes TG to FFA and monoglycerides. Small intestine is the major site of fat digestion and absorption. Gallbladder stores and releases bile acids and lecithins. Bile acids and lecithins emulsify lipids and facilitate breakdown and transport.

75
Q

What will happen if energy in and energy out are about equal?

A

Weight will not change (maintenance)

76
Q

What will happen if energy in is more than energy out?

A

Weight will be gained and primarily stored as fat

77
Q

What happens if energy out is higher than energy in?

A

Weight will be lost

78
Q

What is the first law of thermodynamics?

A

Energy can’t be created or destroyed, only transformed

79
Q

What is adipose tissue?

A

Fat stores in the human body used for “endless” storage.

80
Q

Where is energy stored in the body?

A

VAST MAJORITY of energy is stored in adipose tissue triglyceride. Muscle triglyceride and then muscle glycogen store the next most. After that, liver triglyceride and then liver glycogen stores.

81
Q

How many kcals per gram of fat?

A

9 kcal/g in fat

82
Q

How many kcals per gram of carbohydrate?

A

4 kcal/gram

83
Q

How many kcal per gram of protein?

A

4

84
Q

What is the path of metabolizable energy and where is energy potentially lost through the path?

A

Gross energy -> Digestible energy -> Metabolizable energy. Energy can be lost between gross and digestible through feces. Energy can be lost between digestible and metabolizable through urine and gas.

85
Q

What is the difference between Orlistat and Olestra? What do they have in common

A

Orlistat is a lipase inhibitor drug that doesn’t allow for the digestion of fat (for people trying to lose weight). Olestra is a type of fat that is undigestible by the human body found in “fat-free” foods.

86
Q

How does Olestra affect gross energy and metabolizable energy?

A

Olestra increases intake of gross energy, but not metabolizable because the body cannot metabolize this type of fat.

87
Q

Do vitamins or minerals provide energy to the body?

A

No. Vitamins have energy, but they don’t have metabolizable energy. Minerals do not provide any energy at all.

88
Q

What are 4 non-biological factors impacting energy in?

A
  1. Accessibility
  2. Geographical
  3. Socioeconomic
  4. Culture
  5. Family
  6. Culture
89
Q

What are 4 biological factors impacting energy in?

A
  1. Hunger
  2. Appetite
  3. Satiation
  4. Satiety
90
Q

What is the difference between hunger and appetite?

A

Hunger is the physiological response to nerve signals and hormones after a lack of sufficient food intake. Appetite is the desire to eat, regardless of hunger.

91
Q

What is the difference between satiation and satiety?

A

Satiation is the sensation that prompts the cessation of eating during a meal. Satiety is the feeling of fullness after a meal; satisfaction that persists between meals.

92
Q

What is ghrelin?

A

A hunger hormone that is synthesized in the stomach and sent to the hypothalamus

93
Q

What is the CCK hormone?

A

A protein hormone that is the Satiation response. Stimulates gallbladder for bile production

94
Q

What is the GLP1 hormone?

A

It is a peptide hormone responsible for the satiation response. Released in the small intestine.

95
Q

What is leptin?

A

Satiation signal synthesized in adipose tissue.

96
Q

If you have more adipose tissue, will you produce more or less leptin?

A

More

97
Q

What is the problem in an Ob/Ob mouse?

A

These mice have a mutation in the gene that encodes leptin -> so they can’t produce leptin, but they can respond to leptin if it is in their system. These mice become obese because they do not receive the satiation signal.

98
Q

What is the problem in a Db/Db mouse?

A

These mice have a mutation in the gene that encodes the leptin receptor. These mice produce leptin, but can’t respond to it. These mice gain weight because they do not receive the satiation signal

99
Q

What happens when an Ob/Ob mouse and a +/+ (wild type mouse) share circulation?

A

The wild type mouse stays the same. The Ob/Ob mouse will reduce its food intake, insulin levels, and blood sugar.

100
Q

What happens in the case of when a Db/Db mouse and a wild type mouse share circulation?

A

The Db/Db (diabetic mouse) gained weight and adipose tissue. The lean mouse decreased its food intake, which led to insulinemia and reduced blood sugar. The lean mouse eventually dies by starvation due to a lack of appetite by too much leptin.

101
Q

What happens in the case of when a Db/Db mouse and an Ob/Ob mouse share circulation?

A

Diabetic mouse gains weight and adipose tissue. The Ob/Ob mouse lowers food intake, which reduces adipose tissue and blood sugar, resulting in death by starvation.

102
Q

What are the three methods of measuring energy expenditure?

A
  1. Gas exchange
  2. EER Formula
  3. Wearables
103
Q

What method of engery expenditure does this describe?
The most accurate and complicated measure of energy expenditure; measures O2 consumed and CO2 expelled based on the amounts that different macronutrients need.

A

The gas exchange method of energy expenditure

104
Q

What factors are needed for the EER formula?

A

Age, weight, height, and activity level

105
Q

What do wearables measure to determine energy expenditure?

A

Accelerometer (measures velocity) and heart rate. Fairly inaccurate (20-90%)

106
Q

What are the three components of energy expenditure?

A
  1. Basal metabolism (50-65%), 2. Physical activities (30-50%), 3. Thermic Effect of food (10%)
107
Q

What component of energy expenditure is the amount of energy expended for the digestion of food, usually through heat production?

A

The thermic effect

108
Q

Which macronutrient produces the most heat production through the thermic effect?

A

Protein! (20-25%) then Carbs, then fat

109
Q

What is adaptive thermogenesis?

A

This is the homeostatic regulation of body temperature.

110
Q

What happens during non-shivering thermogenesis?

A

Brown and beige adipocytes are activated when cold

111
Q

Does NST or ST happen first?

A

NST (non-shivering thermogenesis)

112
Q

What are adipocytes?

A

fat cells

113
Q

What are the three types of adipocytes? What tissue are they in?

A
  1. White in White adipose tissue
  2. Brown in brown adipose tissue (modified mitochondria)
  3. Brite/Beige in white adipose tissue (modified mitochondria)
114
Q

What is hydrodensitometry?

A

measures body density, measures the difference between weight out of water and weight in water

115
Q

What is air displacement plethsymography?

A

Determines amount of air displaced by person’s body

116
Q

What is bioelectric impedance?

A

Low intensity electrical current (leaner -> less resistance to current)

117
Q

What is DEXA? What is one pro and one con?

A

Dual X-Ray Absorptiometry: low dose x-ray,
Con: Can’t tell difference between water and muscle
Pro: most accurate

118
Q

What are the five methods to measure body density?

A
  1. Hydrodensitometry
  2. Air displacement plethymography
  3. Bioelectric impedance
  4. DEXA
  5. Skinfold
119
Q

When a person overeats: Protein is broken down in the body into ______ and then used for ____, ____, and _____.

A

Protein is broken down in the body into (amino acids) and then used for (body fat stores), (loss of nitrogen in urine: urea), and (body proteins)

120
Q

When a person overeats: Fats are broken down in the body into _______ and then used for ____.

A

Fats are broken down in the body into (fatty acids) and then used for (body fat stores).

121
Q

When a person overeats: Carbohydrates are broken down in the body into _______ and then used for ______ and _____.

A

Carbohydrates are broken down in the body into (glucose) and then used for (liver and muscle glycogen stores) and (body fat stores)

122
Q

When a person draws on stores (fasting), liver/muscle glycogen stores are broken down into ______ and then used for ______ and ______

A

When a person draws on stores (fasting), liver/muscle glycogen stores are broken down into (glucose) and then used for (energy for the brain, nervous system, and red blood cells) and (energy for other cells).

123
Q

When a person draws on stores (fasting), body fat stores are broken down into ______ and then used for ______.

A

When a person draws on stores (fasting), body fat stores are broken down into (fatty acids) and then used for (energy for other cells).

124
Q

If a fast continues beyond glycogen depletion, body protein is broken down in the body into _____ and then used for _______ and _____.

A

If a fast continues beyond glycogen depletion, body protein is broken down in the body into (amino acids, into urea, glucose, and ketone bodies) and then used for (Energy for the brain, nervous system, and red blood cells) and (Energy for other cells).

125
Q

If a fast continues beyond glycogen depletion, body fat is broken down in the body into ______ and then used for ______ and ______.

A

If a fast continues beyond glycogen depletion, body fat is broken down in the body into (fatty acids and ketone bodies) and then used for (fatty acids -> energy for other cells) and (ketones -> energy for the brain, nervous system, and red blood cells).

126
Q

In response to low blood glucose levels, what do the alpha cells in the pancreas increase the release of?

A

The hormone glucagon

127
Q

In response to elevated glucose levels, what do the beta cells in the pancreas increase the release of?

A

The hormone insulin

128
Q

What does glucagon do once it is in the bloodstream?

A

It stimulates liver cells to break down glycogen and release glucose into the blood. Blood glucose then begins to rise

129
Q

In response to high blood glucose, what does insulin do once released?

A

Insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose into cells and storage as glycogen in the liver and muscles, promote protein synthesis in the muscle, and lipogenesis for storage. Insulin suppresses lipolysis.

130
Q

What are the 4 characteristics of the fed state?

A
  1. Blood glucose is elevated
  2. Insulin is secreted
  3. Relative concentration of insulin is higher than glucagon, favoring glucose utilization and energy storage
  4. Glycogen and fat storage increases
131
Q

What are the 4 characteristics of the post-absorptive state?

A
  1. Blood glucose decreases
  2. Insulin levels decrease and glucagon increases
  3. Increased liver glycogen broken down for source of glucose
  4. Increased fat breakdown and use of fatty acids for energy
132
Q

What are the 5 characteristics of the fasting state?

A
  1. Liver glycogen stores are depleted
  2. Relative concentration of glucagon is higher than insulin
  3. Glucose is supplied mainly by gluconeogenesis
  4. Stored triglycerides are broken down with an increase of use of fatty acids for energy
  5. Ketone formation (ketogenesis) increases
133
Q

What is the difference between catabolism and anabolism?

A

Catabolism breaks down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Waste products include CO2, H2O, and NH3.
Anabolism builds proteins, glycogen, and triglycerides (and other lipids) from amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, and glycerol

134
Q

Where are coenzymes/ cofactors derived from?

A

Vitamins and minerals

135
Q

What is ketosis? How does this differ from ketoacidocis?

A

Ketosis is when there are high levels of ketones in blood (exhale in breath, excrete in urine)
Ketoacidosis is severe ketosis which leads to lowered blood pH, nausea, coma, and death (often occurs in patients with uncontrolled type I diabetes)

136
Q

What are the two anabolic pathways during catabolic conditions?

A

Gluconeogenesis and ketogenesis

137
Q

What two anabolic pathways allow for the storage of “surplus” after food intake?

A

Glycogenesis and lipogenesis

138
Q

What is beta-oxidation?

A

Breakdown of fatty acids to acetyl CoA

139
Q

What is glyconeogenesis?

A

Glycogen breakdown, glucose production

140
Q

What is glycolysis?

A

Glucose breakdown, forming two molecules of pyruvate ATP production without oxygen (anaerobic energy metabolism)

141
Q

What is lipolysis?

A

Breakdown of triglycerol to fatty acids and glycerol

142
Q

What is proteolysis?

A

breakdown of protein to amino acids

143
Q

What is transamination/ deamination?

A

Transfer/removal of amino group (NH3) from the amino acids.

144
Q

What is the citric acid cycle (TCA/Krebs)?

A

A central metabolic pathway, oxidizing acetyl CoA to CO2 and generating reducing equivalents (NADH + H, FADH2) and GTP (ATP)

145
Q

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

A

A series of coupled processes in which reducing equivalents are oxidized and the resulting proton gradient enables ATP production

146
Q

What is gluconeogenesis?

A

Glucose synthesis from noncarbohydrate sources
- can happen in liver (and muscles?)

147
Q

What is ketogenesis?

A

Formation of ketones from acetyl-CoA

148
Q

What is glycogenesis?

A

Formation of glycogen (for storage)

149
Q

What is lipogenesis?

A

Synthesis of fatty acids and formation of triglycerol (for storage)

150
Q

What is the difference between glycemic index and glycemic load?

A

Glycemic index is the property of food that promotes a rise in blood glucose and how long that spike lasts (per 100g). Glycemic load is glycemic index x carb content.

Nutri Sci 332 (2 decks)

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