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SEM 1 Intro to Developmental Psych > Object & physical, Social and Conceptual knowledge > Flashcards

Object & physical, Social and Conceptual knowledge Flashcards

1
Q

Define specialised learning mechanisms

A

Mechanisms which enable infants to acquire knowledge rapidly and efficiently in some domains

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2
Q

What term is used to describe the type of mechanisms which enable infants to acquire knowledge rapidly and efficiently in some domains?

A

Specialised learning mechanisms

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3
Q

Define general learning mechanisms

A

Mechanisms that gradually strengthen infants’ mental representations of the world

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4
Q

What is the term used to describe the type of mechanisms that gradually strengthen infants’ mental representations of the world?

A

General learning representations

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5
Q

List the factors affecting whether children
make the A-not-B error

A

1) Age of the child
2) Length of delay
3) Number of hiding locations
4) Number of times the object was hidden in location A

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6
Q

How does the number of times the object was hidden in location A affect the A-Not-B error?

A

When an object is hidden under location A many many times, the infant develops some sort of memory of the object being hidden there.

This creates a habit of reaching towards location A even when the object is hidden at location B

Because the object is hidden at location B less often than it was hidden at location A, the infant has a weaker memory of the object hidden in location B and is less likely to search in location B

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7
Q

Who proposed early evidence for object permanence?

A

Hood and Willatts

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8
Q

What makes infants perform better at the A-Not-B task?

A

If we test them via visual attention measures (how long they take to look at where the object is hidden) rather than tests that require them to take action

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9
Q

Describe Hood and Willatts’ test for object permanence

A

1) 5-month-olds are shown an object to the left/right

2) The lights switch off

3) Infant reaches to where they last saw the object

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10
Q

What do the results of Hood and Willatts’ test for object permanence suggest about infants’ object permanence?

A

Young infants (before 8 months as how Piaget claimed) are in fact able to mentally represent and think about the existence of invisible objects and events

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11
Q

Describe the violation-of-expectancy procedure

A

When infants are shown an event that should evoke surprise or interest if it violates something that the infant knows or assumes to be true

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12
Q

Who proposed the violation of expectancy procedure?

A

Baillargeon (1987)

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13
Q

Which test involved presenting infants with an event which evoked surprise or interest if it goes against something the infant knows or assumes to be true?

A

Violation of expectancy procedure

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14
Q

What did Baillargeon do in her violation of expectancy experiment?

A

1) Presented infants 3½ months of age with a screen rotating back and forth at 180 degree

2) Infants habituate to the screen rotating back and forth after seeing it multiple times

3) A box is then placed behind the screen which blocks the movement of the screen

4) Infant does not seem surprised or intrigued

5) But the box was placed again except this time, the screen moves back and forth

6) Infant looked longer at this and showed interest (because how can the screen still moves back and forth when there is a box “blocking” it?)

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15
Q

What do the results of Baillargeon’s violation of expectancy experiment suggest?

A

The infants mentally represented the box (understood object permanence) even when it was occluded and were surprised when the screen seemed to pass through the box

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16
Q

Why do children show object permanence with a VoE procedure, but not A-not-B task? List 3 possible reasons.

A

1) memory limitations
- infants could’ve forgotten that the object was hidden under location B because they were only shown it once relative to the number of times the object was hidden under location A

2) problems with inhibitory control associated with immaturity of the prefrontal cortex
- prefrontal cortex influences attention
- if the prefrontal cortex is immature, infants have really short attention spans and may not have paid attention when the object was hidden under location B

3) competition between a representational system and a response system
- even if they understand that the object has moved (mental imagery of object permanence), they will still continue to look in the same place (reaching to location A becomes a habit, automatic)

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17
Q

When does knowledge of gravity begin in infants?

A

In the first year

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18
Q

How do you know that infants are aware of the concept of gravity?

A

If infants seem surprised or stare intently/longer when objects violate expected motion trajectories

e.g. 7-month-olds are surprised to see a
ball roll up a slope without anything pulling or helping it up (Kim & Spelke, 1992)

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19
Q

7-month-olds are surprised to see a
ball roll up a slope without anything pulling or helping it up (Kim & Spelke, 1992)

What does this tell us about the infant?

A

They have knowledge of gravity

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20
Q

When does knowledge of support relations begin in infants?

A

Between 3 months - 12 1/2 months

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21
Q

How do you know that infants are aware of the concept of support relations?

A

If infants seem surprised or stare intently/longer when objects violate expectations of what physical support the infants believe are possible

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22
Q

Describe Baillargeon’s experiment testing for understanding of support relations

A

Infants were presented with a box and a support (a 2nd box)

1) At 3 months
- Infants look longer if the box remains in the air without the help of the support

2) At 5 months
- Infants look longer if the box does not fall when it is at the side of the support rather than on top

3) At 6.5 months
- Infants look longer if the box remains steady with only a small amount of contact with the support

4). At 125 months
- Infants look longer if the box is an asymmetrical object which remains stable on a support that’s much smaller

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23
Q

What happens at 5 months according to Baillargeon’s experiment testing for the understanding of support relations?

A

An infant understands that in order for a box to remain stable, it must make contact with the support

An infant looks longer if the box makes contact with the support sideways rather than on top and does not fall

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24
Q

What happens at 125 months according to Baillargeon’s experiment testing for the understanding of support relations?

A

An infant looks longer if an asymmetric object does not fall despite a substantial part of it being above and in contact with the support

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25
Q

What happens at 3 months according to Baillargeon’s experiment testing for the understanding of support relations?

A

An infant looks longer if the box is not in contact with the support and does not fall

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26
Q

What happens at 6.5 months according to Baillargeon’s experiment testing for the understanding of support relations?

A

An infant looks longer if only a small portion of the box makes contact with the support and does not fall

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27
Q

Define social knowledge

A
  • Knowledge about people and their behaviour
  • Distinguishing animate and inanimate entities
  • Knowing that the behaviour of others is purposeful and goal-directed
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28
Q

Who thought of the experiment which involves infants who see a human arm repeatedly reach for an object in the same location assume that the action is directed toward the object, not the place?

A

(Woodward, 1998)

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29
Q

What did Woodward discover in his experiment to test for understanding of intentions in infants?

A

1) Infants who see a human arm repeatedly reach for an object in the same location assume that the action is directed toward the object, not the place

2) When the object is swapped with another object in the opposite location and the arm reaches for the 2nd object in the previous location, the infant was surprised

3) 6-month olds looked longer when the hand went to the new object in the old place rather than the old object in the new place

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30
Q

What was the experiment performed to test for knowledge on attributing dispositional states?

A

Kuhlmeier et al.

Infants watched a film that adults interpret as a ball “trying and failing” to get up a hill as it is being “helped” by a triangle and being “blocked” by a square

Infants looking behaviour indicated that they expected the ball to approach the “helpful” triangle while avoiding the “hindering” square

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31
Q

What do the results of Kuhlmeier et al.’s study on attributing dispositional states suggest about infants’ social knowledge?

A

Infants often create a personality for objects or things that move around and”behave” in a certain way

e.g. There is a circle trying to climb the hill, a triangle helping the circle and a square pushing the circle down

Infants will think of the square as a bully and refuse to interact with the square

32
Q

Define conceptual knowledge

A

General ideas or understandings that can be used to group together objects, events, qualities, or abstractions that are similar in some way

33
Q

What do nativists (nature) argue about conceptual knowledge?

A

The understanding of concepts are innate and plays a central role in development

34
Q

What do empiricists (nurture) argue about conceptual knowledge?

A

That the understanding of concepts arises from basic learning mechanisms

35
Q

What term is used to describe a major way in which infants figure out how things in the world are related to one another?

A

By dividing objects into categorial hierarchies

36
Q

Define categorial hierarchies

A

Categories related by set-subset relations

37
Q

What are the 3 levels of categorical hierarchies?

A

1) Superordinate (e.g. living things)

2) Basic (e.g. birds)

3) Subordinate (e.g. parrots)

38
Q

Out of the 3 levels in the categorical hierarchies, which level is the very general one?

A

Superordinate

39
Q

Out of the 3 levels in the categorical hierarchies, which level is the very specific one?

A

Subordinate

40
Q

Out of the 3 levels in the categorical hierarchies, which level is in between general and specific?

A

Basic

41
Q

Out of the 3 levels in the categorical hierarchies, which level do infants learn first?

A

Basic level

42
Q

Why do infants learn the basic level first out of the 3 levels in the categorical hierarchies?

A

1) Objects at the basic level share many common characteristics, unlike superordinate level categories

e.g. Cats and Dogs share more similarities than Living things and Non-Living things

2) Category members are relatively easy to discriminate, unlike those in subordinate level categories

e.g. Cats and Dogs are easier to tell apart compared to British shorthair cats and Scottish fold cats

43
Q

Define child-basic categories

A

When children’s generality is somewhere between basic and subordinate level categories (Mervis, 1987)

44
Q

How do children form child-basic categories?

A

Children use what they know about basic-level categories to form superordinate and subordinate categories with the assistance of adults

45
Q

How do infants form basic categories before their first birthday?

A

They group together objects that have similar appearances (perceptual categorisation)

e.g. colour, size, movement

46
Q

At what age do infants habituate at the sight of different breeds of cats but dishabituate when they see a cat and a dog?

A

Before their first birthday (3-4 months of age)

47
Q

Define perceptual categorisation

A

The grouping together of objects that have similar appearances (colour, size, movement, etc.)

48
Q

At what age would infants treat plastic toy birds and aeroplanes as if they were members of the same category?

A

Before their first birthday (7 months of age)

49
Q

Define perceptually similar objects

A

Objects that are similar in basic appearances

e.g. Toy birds and toy planes both have wings and can fly so infants assume they are in the same category

50
Q

Define conceptually different objects

A

Objects that are different in characteristics and purpose but may have similar appearances/ perceptual similarities

e.g. Toy birds and toy planes both have wings and can fly but that does not mean they’re in the same category (birds are living things, planes are not)

51
Q

Who proposed the perceptually similar and conceptually different toy birds and aeroplanes study?

A

Mandler & McDonough, 1993

52
Q

How do infants form basic categories before their second birthday?

A

Infants increasingly categorize objects on the basis of the overall shape

53
Q

At what age do infants form categories on the basis of function?

A

Before their second birthday (14 months)

54
Q

At what age would infants mime feeding a drink to a toy rabbit but not a toy motorcycle? (Mandler & McDonough, 1998)

A

Before their second birthday (14 months)

55
Q

Define forming categories on the basis of function

A

When infants use their knowledge of categories to determine which actions go with which type of objects

56
Q

As children get older, what happens to their ability to categorise?

A

1) They experience an increasing understanding of category hierarchies
2) They experience an increasing understanding of causal connections

57
Q

Define causal relations

A

Understanding why objects are the way they are

58
Q

Why is it important for children to develop causal relations?

A

This helps children learn and remember new categories

59
Q

Who proposed the wugs and gillies experiment to test for the knowledge of causal relations in children?

A

Krascum & Andrews, 1998

60
Q

What did Krascum & Andrews do in their wugs and gillies experiment?

A

1) Children were presented with pictures of 2 mythical creatures/animal = wugs and gillies

2) The experimenters give explanations for the creatures’ appearances

e.g. Animals in the wugs category have claws to help them fight
Animals in the gillies category have wings to help them flee

3) 4 and 5-year-olds were told to match the pictures of the 2 mythical creatures with their respective categories (wugs or gillies)

4) The children categorised the pictures better than children who had not heard the explanation

61
Q

What did the results of Krascum & Andrews’ wugs and gillies experiment suggest?

A

That children are able to tell the difference and categorise things if they were given explanations as to why things are the way they are

62
Q

Between the ages of 4-10 years old, what are children confused with in terms of knowledge of living things?

A

1) Children believe that plants and animals were created to serve specific purposes, much like tools are (Kelemen, 2004)

2) Many children also confuse certain properties of living and nonliving things

63
Q

Who proposed an experiment to observe how children distinguish people from non-living things?

A

Poulin-Dubois (1999)

64
Q

What was the main aim of Poulin-Dubois’ experiment?

A

To study infants’ reactions when they see people and inanimate objects (in this case a robot) engaging in the same action

65
Q

According to Poulin-Dubois’ experiment, at what age do children show surprise when they see inanimate objects move on their own?

A

Before their 2nd birthday (9-12 months)

66
Q

What were the results of Poulin-Dubois’ robot-human experiment?

A

Both 9- and 12-month-olds show surprise when they see inanimate objects move on their own,

67
Q

What do the results of Poulin-Dubois’ robot-human experiment suggest?

A

That children understand that self-produced motion is a distinctive characteristic of people and other animals rather than inanimate objects

68
Q

What do pre-schoolers (3-4 year olds) know about hereditary?

A

Pre-schoolers know that physical characteristics tend to be passed on from parent to offspring, and that certain aspects of development are
controlled by heredity rather than environment

69
Q

Define essentialism

A

The view that living things have an essence inside them that makes them what they are

e.g. People refuse to buy a replica of a specific diamond ring because the replicas don’t have the “essence” of the actual diamond ring

70
Q

What is the most common mistake children make when it comes to hereditary and attributed gender differences?

A

Children often attribute gender differences to inherited essentialism

This means children believe certain characteristics of boys and girls are due to genetics

e.g. A boy’s “boyness” is inherited and is what makes the boy prefer playing with car toys rather than barbies

71
Q

At what age do children start to recognise the influence of the environment on gender differences? (Taylor, 1993)

A

Ages 9-10 years

72
Q

At what age do children realise that growth is a product of internal processes?
(Rosengran et al., 1991)

A

Ages 3-4 years

73
Q

What do children know about the growth and illnesses of living things?

A

1) Children know that plants and animals, unlike inanimate objects, have internal processes that allow them to heal

2) Children understand that illness and old age can cause a permanent state of death, from which there is no recovery
(Nguyen & Gelman, 2002)

74
Q

Baby Karl does not make the A-not-B error when tested via looking measures but still makes the error when tested via reaching measures.

What is the likely reason for Karl’s error?

A. An immature prefrontal cortex
B. Limited memory capacity
C. Problems with inhibitory control when a particular action has been previously performed
D. All of the above

A

D. All of the above

75
Q

Infants who gaze in the same direction as a faceless blob that has responded to their behaviour are exhibiting….

A. Attribution of dispositional state
B. Understanding of intention
C. Categorical separation of living and non-living things
D. All of the above

A

B. Understanding of intention

76
Q

“Cat” is an example of a…

A. superordinate category
B. basic-level category
C. child-basic category
D. subordinate category

A

B. basic-level category

77
Q

Naomi is five years old and has just broken a leg
on her favourite chair. Which of the following is she likely to believe?

A. The chair can heal itself
B. The chair can grow a new leg
C. The chair isn’t alive
D. Both A and B

A

C. The chair isn’t alive

Because children have knowledge on illnesses and growth by the age of 3-4 years

SEM 1 Intro to Developmental Psych (10 decks)

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