Operant conditioning

Question 1

What is operant conditioning? (3 points)

Answer 1

A form of learning where voluntary behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences

The ABC model proposes:
Antecedents - a stimulus or cue
Behaviour - performed by organism due to antecedents
Consequences

To change or shape behaviour, it is easier to change the consequences rather than changing the antecedents

Question 2

Define “reinforcement”.

Answer 2

Pleasant consequences which make behaviour more likely to be repeated

Question 3

Define “positive reinforcement” and give an example.

Answer 3

Rewarding desired behaviour by introducing something pleasant stimulus

Example: A compliment

Question 4

Define “negative reinforcement” and give an example.

Answer 4

Rewarding desired behaviour by removing an aversive stimulus

Example: Stopping criticism

Question 5

Define “primary reinforcement” and give an example.

Answer 5

Reinforcement where the reward is an innate basic need which we desire

Example: Food

Question 6

Define “secondary reinforcement” and give an example.

Answer 6

Reinforcement where the reward is something that can satisfy a basic need but is not itself a basic need

Example: Money/food tokens

Question 7

Define “punishment”.

Answer 7

Unpleasant consequences which make the behaviour less likely to be repeated

Question 8

Define “positive punishment” and give an example.

Answer 8

An undesirable behaviour being punished by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus

Example: detention

Question 9

Define “negative punishment” and give an example.

Answer 9

An undesirable behaviour being punished by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus

Example: No pocket money

Question 10

What was the procedure of Skinner’s box study? (4 points)

Answer 10

1. Pigeon/rat was starved to 75% of its well-fed weight
2. Rat/pigeon put into the Skinner box:
   + Temperature, light and noise were kept constant
   + Lever on one of the walls that delivered a food pellet when pressed
3. Rat/pigeon wandered around aimlessly until it accidentally pressed the lever and received a pellet
4. Skinner left the animal in the box and measured how frequently the animal pressed the lever over time

Question 11

What were the results and conclusion of Skinner’s box study? (4 points)

Answer 11

Positive reinforcement:
+ Rat learnt pressing the lever results in the pleasant consequence of a food pellet
+ More likely to repeat this behaviour

Rat was exposed to an unpleasant electric current, causing it discomfort - moved around rapidly until it accidentally hit the lever which stopped the current

Negative reinforcement:
+ Rat learnt pressing the lever leads to the pleasant consequence of the removal of the ‘unpleasant electric shocks’
+ More likely to repeat this behaviour

Conclusion: The behaviour which is reinforced would be repeated.

Question 12

Define “continuous reinforcement”. (2 points)

Answer 12

Reinforcement where the consequence occurs every time the behaviour occurs

Learning is fast, extinction is fast

Question 13

Define “partial reinforcement”.

Answer 13

Reinforcement where the consequence occurs only some of the time the behaviour occurs

Question 14

What are the four types of partial reinforcement?

Answer 14

Interval - reinforcement given after a period of time
Fixed: Medium learning and extinction

Ratio - reinforcement given after a number of behaviours
Fixed: Fast learning, medium extinction

Variable for both: Fast learning, slow extinction

Question 15

What are the 4 supporting and 4 refuting arguments for operant conditioning as an explanation of human behaviour?

Answer 15

Supporting:
Token economies
Behaviour modification
Psychology as a science
Holistic

Refuting:
Practical issues of implementing research
Ethics
Reductionist
Nature-nurture debate

Question 16

How do token economies support operant conditioning as an explanation of human behaviour? (3 points)

Answer 16

Tokens may be vouchers or plastic chips

Secondary reinforcer - when there are enough of them, they can be ‘cashed in’ for a primary reinforcer, like gifts, luxuries or privileges

Has been successfully used in schools and prisons - Mestel and Concar (1994) found it useful to treat drug addicts for staying clean in rehab

Question 17

How does behaviour modification support operant conditioning as an explanation of human behaviour? (5 points)

Answer 17

Behaviour modification
+ A therapy that has a theoretical basis within operant conditioning
+ Done by initially rewarding a behaviour close to the desired behaviour, waiting, repeating and then eventually rewarding the actual desired behaviour

Can be used as a form of social control - institutions and societies can reinforce and punish behaviours that they subjectively deem acceptable

These tools have been used to subjugate people for the gain of those in control of money (secondary reinforcer) and food (primary reinforcement) e.g., parents, governments, schools, and corporations

The successful application suggests it is valid to state that OC explains human behaviour

Question 18

How does psychology as a science support operant conditioning support it as an explanation of human behaviour? (3 points)

Answer 18

Operant conditioning research has adhered to the scientific principles of empiricism & objectivity

Behavioural psychologists like Skinner focused on observable and measurable behaviour in highly controlled laboratory experiments, producing objective, replicable results

E.g. Skinner’s IV of fixed/variable and ratio/interval reinforcement schedule of the food reward for the pigeon/rat when pressing the lever

Question 19

Is operant conditioning a better explanation of human behaviour than classical conditioning? (2 points)

Answer 19

It is more a holistic explanation of human behaviour than classical conditioning

It also considers voluntary behaviour rather than just reflexive behaviour

Question 20

How do the practical issues of implementing research refute operant conditioning as an explanation of human behaviour? (3 points)

Answer 20

Much of the research used in operant conditioning supporting evidence comes from animals

Humans’ neurological structures are more complex than those of animals - their cerebral cortex and pre-frontal cortex are more developed

Any findings from animals may not be representative of human learning via consequences

Question 21

How do the ethics of operant conditioning refute it as an explanation of human behaviour? (4 points)

Answer 21

Operant conditioning has been criticised due to ethical violations of the supporting research

Pigeons, mice and rats in Skinner’s box experiments were kept in small spaces and starved to 75% of their body weight - would have caused them extreme harm and distress

Goes against the Refinement ruling of the Scientific Procedures Act for Animals (1986)

However, benefits of the research could be considered to outweigh the costs of harm caused

Question 22

How does operant conditioning being reductionist refute it as an explanation of human behaviour? (3 points)

Answer 22

Reductionist - suggests that everything people do is a sum of our direct reinforcement/punishments

There are more holistic approaches like Social Learning Theory, which considers:
+ The role of indirect learning (observation and imitation)
+ Internal mental processes such as attention

Question 23

How does the nature-nurture debate refute operant conditioning as an explanation of human behaviour? (3 points)

Answer 23

OC explanation of human behaviour is a nurture theory - sees all behaviour deemed from past experiences (consequences)

Nature explanations of human behaviour would suggest our genes and hormones determine our behaviour rather than whether we have been rewarded or punished

Operant conditioning as an explanation for human behaviour is limited