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huda bio > Organisation > Flashcards

Organisation Flashcards

1
Q

What is a cell?

A

The basic building block of a living organism.

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2
Q

What is a tissue?

A

A group of cells with a similar structure and function working together. For example, muscular tissue contracts to bring about movement.

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3
Q

What is an organ?

A

A collection of tissues working together to perform a specific function. For example, the stomach contains the glandular, muscular and epithelial tissues.

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4
Q

What is an organ system?

A

A group of organs working together to perform specific functions. For example, the digestive system consists of the stomach, large intestine and small intestine working together.

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5
Q

What is the main function of the digestive system?

A

To digest food and absorb the nutrients obtained from digestion.

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6
Q

What is the role of the pancreas and salivary gland in the digestive system?

A

They produce digestive juices containing enzymes.

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7
Q

What is the role of the stomach in the digestive system?

A

Produces hydrochloric acid which kills bacteria and provides the optimum acidic pH for protease enzymes to function.

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8
Q

What is the role of the small intestine in the digestive system?

A

It is the site where soluble food molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream.

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9
Q

What is the role of the liver in the digestive system?

A

Produces bile (which is stored in the gall bladder).

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10
Q

What is the role of the large intestine in the digestive system?

A

Absorbs water from undigested food producing faeces.

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11
Q

What is the role of enzymes in the digestive system?

A

They act as biological catalysts which speed up the rate of biological reactions (the breakdown of food) without being used up in the process.

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12
Q

How does the shape of an enzyme affect its function?

A

They have a specific active site which is complementary to their substrate.

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13
Q

What types of metabolic reactions do enzymes catalyse?

A

Changing one molecule to another - e.g glucose to fructose.
Breaking down larger molecules into smaller molecules - e.g carbohydrates to glucose.
Building larger molecules from smaller molecules - e.g. glucose to starch.

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14
Q

What is the lock and key hypothesis of enzyme function?

A

The shape of an enzyme’s active site and the substrate are complementary so can bind together to form an enzyme-substrate complex.

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15
Q

How does temperature affect enzyme action?

A

Up to a certain point, increasing temperature increases enzyme reaction as molecules have a higher kinetic energy. Above a certain temperature the active site is altered and the enzyme becomes denatured so it can no longer catalyse the reaction. The optimum temperature is 37 degrees celsius.

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16
Q

How does pH affect enzyme function?

A

The optimum pH for most enzymes is 7 (apart from protease in the stomach). If the pH is too extreme, the shape of the active site may be altered and the enzyme will no longer work.

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17
Q

Where are carbohydrases, lipases and proteases found in the body?

A

Carbohydrase: amylase - salivary gland and pancreas; maltase - small intestine.
Protease: pepsin - stomach; others - pancreas and small intestine.
Lipases: pancreas and small intestine.

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18
Q

What is the role of carbohydrases and amylase in the digestive system?

A

Amylase breaks down starch into maltose and maltase breaks maltose into glucose.
Carbohydrases break down carbohydrates into simple sugars.

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19
Q

What is the role of protease in the digestive system?

A

Breaks down proteins into amino acids.

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20
Q

What is the role of lipase in the digestive system?

A

Lipase breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.

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21
Q

How are the products of digestion used?

A

They are used to build bigger molecules such as carbohydrates and proteins.
Glucose is used as a substrate in respiration.

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22
Q

What is the function of bile?

A

Neutralises the hydrochloric acid.
Emulsifies fats to form small droplets which increase the surface area for the lipase enzyme to work on.

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23
Q

What is the heart?

A

An organ that pumps blood around the body.

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24
Q

What is the purpose of the circulatory system?

A

Carries oxygen and other useful substances to bodily tissues and removes waste substances.

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25
Q

How does the double circulatory system work?

A

One pathway carries blood from the heart to tissues.
One pathway carries blood from the heart to the lungs where gaseous exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide take place.

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26
Q

Where does the blood pumped by the right ventricle go to?

A

Lungs

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27
Q

Where does the blood pumped by the left ventricles go to?

A

Body tissues

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28
Q

Why is the double circulatory system important?

A

It makes the circulatory system more effective - for example oxygenated blood can be pumped around the body at a higher pressure by the left ventricle.

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29
Q

How many chambers does the heart have and what are they called?

A

4 chambers
Right atrium
Right ventricle
Left atrium
Left ventricle

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30
Q

Why is the wall of the left ventricle thicker?

A

The left ventricle has to pump blood at a higher pressure around the whole body.

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31
Q

What are the four main blood vessels associated with the heart?

A

Aorta (left) - carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the body.
Pulmonary vein (left) - carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
Vena cava (right) - carries deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart.
Pulmonary artery (right) - carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.

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32
Q

Purpose of valves?

A

Prevents the backflow of blood.

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33
Q

Purpose of coronary arteries?

A

Supply the heart muscle with oxygenated blood.

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34
Q

Process of blood flow through the heart?

A

Blood enters the right atrium via the vena cava and the left ventricle via the pulmonary vein.
The aorta contract forcing blood into the ventricles causing valves to shut.
After the ventricles contract, blood in the right ventricle enters the pulmonary artery (to the lungs) and blood in the left ventricles enter the aorta (to the body).

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35
Q

How is the heart rate controlled?

A

A group of cells in the right atrium which act as pacemakers.
They release waves of electrical activity which cause the heart muscle to contract.

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36
Q

How can an abnormal heart rhythm be treated?

A

An artificial pacemaker which sends out electrical signals to correct the heart’s rhythm.

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37
Q

What are the three types of blood vessels in the body?

A

Arteries
Veins
Capillaries

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38
Q

How are arteries adapted to their function?

A

Function - carry blood away from the heart.
Thick muscle layer - adds strength to resist high temperatures.
Thick elastic layer - allows arteries to stretch and recoil to withstand high pressure.

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39
Q

How are veins adapted to their function?

A

Function - carry blood towards the heart.
Wide lumen - enables low pressure
Valves - prevent the backflow of blood.

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40
Q

How are capillaries adapted to their function?

A

Function - enables transfer of substances between the blood and tissues.
Walls are one cell thick - short diffusion pathway.
Permeable walls - substances can diffuse across.
Narrow lumen - blood moves slowly so there is more time for diffusion.

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41
Q

How can you calculate the rate of blood flow?

A

Volume of blood/number of minutes.

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42
Q

Where are the lungs found in the body?

A

Located in the thorax (within the chest). They are protected by the rib cage and are separated from the rest of the abdomen by the diaphragm.

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43
Q

What tissues make up the gas exchange system? (6)

A

Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Diaphragm
Alveoli
Intercostal muscles

44
Q

How are the lungs ventilated by the action of the intercostal muscles?

A

Intercostal muscles contract
Ribcage moves upwards and outwards
Diaphragm flattens and volume of the chest increases.
Increased volume results in decreased pressure.
Air is drawn out into lungs down pressure gradient.
INVERSE WHEN AIR MOVES OUT OF LUNGS.

45
Q

How does gas exchange occur at the alveoli?

A

Oxygen diffused from the alveoli into the capillary bloodstream down its concentration gradient.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillary into the alveoli down its concentration gradient.

46
Q

How are alveoli adapted for gas exchange?

A

Thin alveolar walls - short diffusion pathway
Small and arranged in clusters - large surface area
Rich blood supply - maintains the concentration gradient.

47
Q

How would you calculate the breathing rate?

A

Number of breaths/number of minutes.

48
Q

What is the role of plasma?

A

Carries the different components of blood around the body.

49
Q

What substances are transported by plasma?

A

Red blood cells.
White blood cells.
Platelets.
Carbon dioxide
Urea
Products of digestion.

50
Q

What is plasma?

A

A yellow liquid within blood that transports substances around the body.

51
Q

Purpose of red blood cells in blood?

A

Transport oxygen around the body.

52
Q

How are red blood cells adapted for their function?

A

Biconcave shape - increased surface area to volume ratio.
No nucleus - more room for haemoglobin to bind to oxygen.
Contains haemoglobin - binds to oxygen.

53
Q

Purpose of white blood cells in blood?

A

Form part of the immune system which protects the body from invading pathogens.

54
Q

How are white blood cells adapted for their function?

A

Have a nucleus - contains DNA which codes for proteins.
Can produce antibodies
Can produce antitoxins
Can engulf and digest pathogens (phagocytosis)

55
Q

What is the purpose of platelets in blood?

A

They are small cell fragments which aid the clotting of blood at the site of a wound.

56
Q

Why is the function of platelets important?

A

They aid in the process of blood clotting.
They prevent excess bleeding and scab formation prevents bacteria from entering the wound.

57
Q

What is coronary heart disease?

A

Occurs when the coronary arteries that supply the heart muscle become blocked with a buildup of fatty material.
This restricts the supply of oxygen to the heart possibly leading to a heart attack or death.

58
Q

What is a stent and how does it work?

A

It is a metal mesh tube that is inserted into a blocked artery so that it remains open. The stent is inflated using a balloon which is later removed to allow blood to flow freely.

59
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of stents?

A

Advantages - quicker recovery time
- insertion can be carried out without a general anaesthetic.
- lowers the risk of a heart attack.
Disadvantages - risk of infection
- risk of blood clots at the site of the stent

60
Q

What are statins?

A

Drugs that reduce the LDL cholesterol which contributes to the development of CHD.

61
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of statins?

A

Advantages - Increases the HDL cholesterol
- reduces risk of strokes, coronary heart disease and heart attacks
Disadvantages - have to be taken continuously.
- may have side effects
- effect may not be immediate.

62
Q

What is a heart bypass surgery?

A

Blocked coronary arteries are replaced with sections of veins taken from other parts of the body.

63
Q

What are the consequences of a leaky heart valve?

A

Blood flows in the wrong direction, causing the heart to become less efficient. Patients may become breathless and die as a result.

64
Q

What types of valves can replace leaky valves?

A

Mechanical valves - made of metals or polymers.
Biological valves - taken from pigs or maybe even humans.

65
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of a mechanical valve?

A

Advantages - last a very long time.
Disadvantages - need to take medicine to prevent blood clotting around valve.

66
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of a biological valve?

A

Disadvantage - only lasts 12-15 years
Advantage - works very well with no medicine required.

67
Q

Purpose of an artificial heart?

A

To support a patient’s heart whilst they wait for a suitable donor.

68
Q

Disadvantages and advantages of artificial hearts?

A

Advantages - less likely to be rejected by the body’s immune system
- allows damaged heart to rest and recover.
Disadvantages - risk of infection as it is a surgery.
- risk of blood clots
- have to take blood thinning drugs

69
Q

What is health?

A

The state of physical or mental wellbeing.

70
Q

What is a non-communicable disease?

A

Cannot be transmitted from person to person e.g. cancer.

71
Q

How can diet affect health?

A

Too little food/lack of nutrition - anaemia, vitamin deficiencies.
Too much food/unhealthy food - obesity, type 2 diabetes

72
Q

How can stress affect health?

A

Prolonged stress is linked to heart diseases, cancers and mental health issues.

73
Q

How can life situations affect health?

A

Location, gender, financial status, ethnic group and healthcare provision can affect health.

74
Q

3 examples of how health problems can interact?

A

Infections with certain viruses can lead to cancer e.g. hepatitis infections can lead to liver cancer.
Severe physical ill health can lead to depression and other mental illness.
Immune reactions initially caused by a pathogen can trigger allergies such as skin rashes and asthma.

75
Q

What is a risk factor?

A

An aspect of a person’s lifestyle or a substance found in the body or environment which can increase the risk of a disease.

76
Q

What is a causal mechanism?

A

A mechanism which demonstrates how one factor biologically influences another.

77
Q

How does diet affect the development of cardiovascular disease?

A

High levels of LDL cholesterol causes arteries to become blocked, increasing blood pressure and the risk of a heart attack.

78
Q

How does smoking affect the development of cardiovascular disease?

A

Nicotine increases heart rate; other chemicals damage the artery lining and increase blood pressure.

79
Q

How does exercise affect the development of cardiovascular disease?

A

Lowers blood pressure which reduces strain on the heart.

80
Q

How does alcohol affect the liver and brain function?

A

Excessive long-term alcohol use may lead to liver scarring.
Increased risk of liver cancer
Damages brain tissue and nerve cells.

81
Q

How does smoking affect the development of lung disease and lung cancer?

A

Tar in tobacco can damage the alveoli of the lungs leading to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
Tar damages the cells which line the lungs leading to lung cancer.

82
Q

How do smoking and alcohol affect unborn babies?

A

Carbon monoxide from tobacco smoke reduces the amount of oxygen the fetus receives which can lead to premature death or stillbirth.
Alcohol passes across the placenta and damages the developing fetus. The baby could be born with fetal alcohol syndrome.

83
Q

How do carcinogens affect the development of cancer?

A

Ionising radiation is a type of carcinogen which can cause mutations in DNA potentially leading to cancer.

84
Q

What is cancer?

A

The development of a tumour as a result of uncontrolled cell division.

85
Q

What is a benign tumour?

A

Contained in one location usually within a membrane.
Non cancerous - don’t invade other parts of the body.
Can grow large very quickly which may damage another organ.

86
Q

What is a malignant tumour?

A

Can invade other tissues
May lead to death
Cells divide more rapidly and have a longer lifespan.
Tumour can spread around the body via the blood and lymphatic system.

87
Q

5 factors which can lead to cancer?

A

Ionising radiation
Smoking
Obesity
Genetics
Viral infection

88
Q

How is the epidermal tissue adapted for its function?

A

Epidermal tissue covers the entire plant.
It has a waxy cuticle which helps reduce water loss from leaf surface.

89
Q

How is palisade mesophyll adapted for its function?

A

Contains lots of chloroplasts which allow photosynthesis to progress at a rapid rate.

90
Q

How is spongy mesophyll tissue adapted for its function?

A

Has lots of air spaces which allow gases including oxygen and carbon dioxide to diffuse in and out.

91
Q

How is the xylem adapted for its function?

A

Strengthened by lignin - makes the vessel strong and waterproof.
Has bordered pits - allows minerals to be transported to specific places.
Made up of dead cells which form a continuous hollow tube - allows the movement of water and mineral ions from the roots to the leaves.

92
Q

How is the phloem adapted for its function?

A

Made up of elongated living cells.
Cells have sieve plates that connect them together - cell sap can move through plates to other cells.
Sieve tube cells have few organelles to allow the efficient transport of substances.

93
Q

How is meristem tissue adapted for its function?

A

Made up of stem cells which can differentiate into many different cell types allowing the plant to grow.

94
Q

What tissues does the leaf organ contain?

A

Epidermis
Palisade Mesophyll
Spongy Mesophyll
Phloem
Xylem
Guard Cells

95
Q

What is the function of guard cells?

A

Control the closing and opening of the stomata according to the water content of the plant.

96
Q

How are stomata adapted for their function?

A

Allows the control of gaseous exchange and water loss from the leaf.
More stomata on the base of the leaf - minimises water loss as this side is cooler and shaded.
Guard cells control the opening and closing of the stomata.

97
Q

How are root hair cells adapted for their function?

A

RHC allow the uptake of water and mineral ions from the soil.
Large surface area - maximises the rate of absorption.
Contains lots of mitochondria - release energy for active transport of mineral ions.

98
Q

What is translocation?

A

Movement of dissolved sugars from the leaves to other parts of the plant.

99
Q

What is transpiration?

A

Evaporation of water vapour from the surface of a plant.

100
Q

How does transpiration work?

A

Water evaporates from the leaf surface via the stomata.
Water molecules cohere together - more water is pulled up the xylem.
More water is taken up from the soil - creates a continous transpiration stream

101
Q

How does temperature affect the rate of transpiration?

A

Increasing temp = increased rate of transpiration.
Higher rate of evaporation and diffusion of water - therefore rate of transpiration is increased.

102
Q

How does humidity affect the rate of transpiration?

A

Increasing relative humidity = decreased rate of transpiration.
High relative humidity will reduce the water vapour of concentration gradient.
The rate of evaporation will decrease and so will the rate of transpiration.

103
Q

How does wind speed affect the rate of transpiration?

A

Increasing wind speed/air movement = increased rate of transpiration.
Increased air movement lowers water vapour concentration outside the leaf. This increases the water vapour concentration gradient, thereby increasing the rate of evaporation and transpiration.

104
Q

How does light intensity affect the rate of transpiration?

A

Increasing the light intensity = increased rate of transpiration.
The rate of photosynthesis increases so more stomata open. This allows the rate of evaporation to increase increasing the rate of transpiration.

105
Q

What 4 factors affect the rate of transpiration?

A

Light Intensity
Relative Humidity
Temperature
Wind Speed

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