Organisations, movements and members

Question 1

Church and sect

What are the two main types of religious organisations identified by Troeltsch?

Answer 1

Troeltsch distinguished between churches and sects.

Question 2

What characterizes churches?

Answer 2

Churches are large organisations with millions of members, run by a bureaucratic hierarchy of professional priests, and claim a monopoly of the truth.

Question 3

What are the social characteristics of churches?

Answer 3

Churches are universalistic, aiming to include the whole of society, and tend to attract higher classes due to their ideological conservatism and links to the state.

Question 4

What are sects according to Troeltsch?

Answer 4

Sects are small, exclusive groups that are hostile to wider society and expect a high level of commitment from their members.

Question 5

What is a key difference between churches and sects?

Answer 5

Unlike churches, sects draw their members from the poor and oppressed and are often led by charismatic leaders.

Question 6

Denomintaions and cults

What is a denomination according to Niebuhr?

Answer 6

Denominations lie midway between churches and sects, with less exclusivity than sects but not appealing to the whole society like churches.

Question 7

How do denominations differ from churches and sects?

Answer 7

Denominations are tolerant of other religious organisations and do not claim a monopoly of the truth.

Question 8

What is a cult?

Answer 8

Cults are highly individualistic, loose-knit groups around shared themes, usually without a sharply defined belief system.

Question 9

What is a characteristic of cults?

Answer 9

Cults do not demand strong commitment from followers, who are often treated more like customers than members.

Question 10

What similarities and differences did Wallis highlight between religious organisations?

Answer 10

Churches and sects claim their interpretation of faith is the only correct one, while denominations and cults accept multiple valid interpretations.

Question 11

What are the three groups of new religious movements (NRMs) according to Wallis?

Answer 11

NRMs can be classified as world-rejecting, world-accommodating, or world-affirming based on their relationship to the outside world.

Question 12

What characterizes world-rejecting NRMs?

Answer 12

World-rejecting NRMs, like the Moonies, are critical of the outside world and expect members to make a sharp break with their former life.

Question 13

What defines world-accommodating NRMs?

Answer 13

World-accommodating NRMs focus on restoring the spiritual purity of religion without rejecting the world, often breaking away from mainstream churches.

Question 14

What are characteristics of world-affirming NRMs?

Answer 14

World-affirming NRMs offer access to spiritual powers and are often less organized, treating followers more like customers.

Question 15

What is a common trait of world-affirming NRMs?

Answer 15

They accept the world as it is and promise success in mainstream goals, while being tolerant of other religions.

Question 16

What is an evaluation of Willis’s NRMs?

Answer 16

Wallis provides a useful classification of NRMs, but some argue it lacks clarity on whether it categorizes teachings or individual beliefs.

Question 17

Sects and cults: Stark and B

What do Stark and Bainbridge argue about sects and cults?

Answer 17

• Sects result from schisms - splits in existing organisations. They break away from churches usually because of disagreements about doctrine
• Cults are new religions, such as Scientology and Christian Science / new ones to that particular society that have been imported such as TM.

Question 18

What is the difference between sects and cults according to Stark and Bainbridge?

Answer 18

Sects promise other-worldly benefits (rewarded in the after life) to those suffering economic deprivation, while cults offer this-worldly benefits to more prosperous individuals e.g god health.

Question 19

How do Stark and Bainbridge classify cults?

Answer 19

Cults are subdivided into audience cults, which are least organized, and client cults, which provide services to followers and cultic movements which are the most organised.

Question 20

Explanations of NRM

What explanations have sociologists offered for the growth of religious movements?

Answer 20

Since the 1960s, there has been a rapid growth in the number of sects and cults, and in number of people belonging to them. For example, there are estimated to be over 800 NRMs and over half a million individuals belonging to these and other non-mainstream Christian churches in the UK.

The main explanations are marginality, relative deprivation, and social change.

Question 21

What does marginality refer to in the context of sects?

Answer 21

Marginality refers to sects drawing members from the poor and oppressed, who feel deprivileged in society.

For example, in the 20th century the Nation of Islam recruited successfully among disadvantaged blacks in the USA.

However since the 1960s, the sect-like world-rejecting NRMs such as the Moonies have recruited mainly from more affluent groups of often well-educated young, middle-class whites.

Question 22

How do sects provide a solution to marginality according to Weber?

Answer 22

Sects offer a theodicy of desprivilege, justifying suffering and promising future rewards for keeping faith.

Question 23

What is relative deprivation?

Answer 23

Relative deprivation is the subjective sense of being deprived, even if one is materially well-off.

Thus, although middle-class people are materially well off, they may feel they are spiritually deprived, especially in today’s materialistic, consumerist world, which they may perceive as impersonal and lacking in moral value, emotional warmth or authenticity. As a result, Wallis argues, they may turn to sects for a sense of community.

Question 24

How do relative deprivation and sects relate?

Answer 24

Relatively deprived individuals may break away from churches to form sects that safeguard original beliefs.

Question 25

What is social change's role in the growth of religious movements?

Answer 25

Periods of rapid change can disrupt established norms, leading individuals to seek solutions in sects.

Question 26

# Demoniation or death What does Niebuhr argue about the lifespan of sects?

Answer 26

Niebuhr argues that sects are short-lived and either die out or become denominations within a generation.

Question 27

What factors contribute to sects becoming denominations?

Answer 27

Factors include the second generation's lack of commitment, the 'Protestant ethic' effect, and the death of charismatic leaders.

Question 28

# The New Age What is the New Age movement?

Answer 28

The New Age movement encompasses a range of beliefs and activities that have been widespread since the 1980s.

Question 29

What characterizes the beliefs within the New Age movement?

Answer 29

New Age beliefs are diverse and eclectic, including topics like UFOs, astrology, and alternative medicine.

Question 30

What is the New Age movement?

Answer 30

A range of beliefs and activities that have been widespread since at least the 1980s, with about 2,000 activities and 146,000 practitioners in the UK.

Question 31

What are some examples of New Age beliefs?

Answer 31

They include belief in UFOs, astrology, tarot, crystals, alternative medicine, psychotherapy, and yoga.

Question 32

What are the two common themes characterizing the New Age according to Heelas?

Answer 32

Self-spirituality and detraditionalisation.

Question 33

What is self-spirituality in the context of the New Age?

Answer 33

New Agers seek spirituality within themselves, turning away from traditional external religions.

Question 34

What does detraditionalisation mean in the New Age context?

Answer 34

The rejection of spiritual authority from external traditional sources, valuing personal experiences instead.

Question 35

How do New Age beliefs vary beyond common features?

Answer 35

They include both world-affirming aspects for success and world-rejecting elements for inner enlightenment.

Question 36

# Contrasts of the New Age What does Bruce argue about the growth of the New Age?

Answer 36

It is a feature of modern society, valuing individualism, particularly among those in expressive professions.

Question 37

How do Stark and Bainbridge categorize cults?

Answer 37

They subdivide cults based on their organization level, with cultic movements being the most organized.

Question 38

What is a cultic movement?

Answer 38

A highly organized cult that demands a higher level of commitment from its members.

Question 39

# Gender and religiosity What gender differences exist in religious practice according to Davie?

Answer 39

Most churchgoers are female, with women attending church more regularly than men.

Question 40

What is one reason for women's higher levels of religiosity according to Miller and Hoffman?

Answer 40

Women are less risk-averse than men, making them more likely to participate in religion.

Question 41

How does socialization contribute to women's religiosity?

Answer 41

Women are socialized to be more passive, obedient, and caring, qualities valued by most religions.

Question 42

How do women's gender roles affect their religious participation?

Answer 42

Women often work part-time or are full-time carers, allowing more time for religious activities.

Question 43

What does Bruce argue about women's religiosity and paid work?

Answer 43

Women's lower involvement in paid work contributes to their higher levels of religiosity.

Question 44

What is the 'decline of female piety' as noted by Callum Brown?

Answer 44

By the 1960s, many women began to withdraw from religion as they took on secular roles.

Question 45

What two reasons make religion more attractive to women?

Answer 45

Religion aligns with caring values and churches have become feminized spaces emphasizing women's concerns.

Question 46

What does Bruce estimate about women's involvement in sects?

Answer 46

There are twice as many women as men involved in sects.

Question 47

# Pentecostal gender paradox What is the Pentecostal gender paradox?

Answer 47

Despite being patriarchal, Pentecostalism has attracted many women.

Question 48

How does Pentecostalism help women combat machismo culture?

Answer 48

It pressures men to act responsibly and redirect their income back into the household.

Question 49

What recent trend has been observed in women's religious participation in the UK?

Answer 49

There has been a decline in women's participation in religious activities.

Question 50

# Ethnic differences in achievement What ethnic patterns exist in religious participation?

Answer 50

Most minority ethnic groups have higher than average rates of religious participation. ## Footnote For example, in London, Brierley found that black people are twice as likely to attend church as whites. Muslims, Hindus and black Christians are also considerably more likely than White Christians to see their religion as important and to attend a place of worship every week.

Question 51

What does Bruce argue about religion in minority groups?

Answer 51

Religion offers support and a sense of cultural identity in uncertain environments.

Question 52

What is cultural transition in the context of religion?

Answer 52

Religion can ease the transition into a new culture by providing community support. ## Footnote Bruce sees a similar pattern in the history of immigration into the UK, where religion has provided a focal point for Irish, African Caribbean, Muslim etc. However, once a group - such as Irish Catholics for example - has made the transition into the wider society, religion may lose its role and decline in importance.

Question 53

# Age and religiosity What general pattern exists regarding age and religious participation?

Answer 53

Older individuals are more likely to attend religious services, with a noted exception for those under 15.

Question 54

What explanations do Voas and Crockett provide for age differences in religiosity?

Answer 54

The ageing effect, period or cohort effect, and secularisation.

Question 55

What is the ageing effect?

Answer 55

The ageing effect- This is the view that people turn to religion as they get older. For example, using evidence from the Kendall Project, Heelas argues that people become more interested in spirituality as they age. As we approach death, we 'naturally' become more concerned about spiritual matters and the afterlife, repentance of past misdeed and so on. As a result, we are more likely to go to church.

Question 56

What are the other reasons for the age differences in religiosity?

Answer 56

* The period or cohort effect- People born during a particular period may be more or less likely to be religious because of the particular events they lived through, such as war or rapid social changes. * Secularisation- As religion declines in importance, each generation become less religious than the one before it.

Question 57

What is the reason why young people are less religious?

Answer 57

Voas and Crockett argue that secularisation is the main reason why younger people are less religious than older people. They found that in each succeeding generation, only half as many people are religious compares with the generation before it. ## Footnote This is because of what Arweck and Beckford describe as the 'virtual collapse of religious socialisation' after the 1960s. For example, traditional Sunday schools, which in the 1950s enrolled a third of all 14-year-olds, have all but disappeared.

Question 58

What does Voas suggest about the likelihood of parents raising religious children?

Answer 58

Even parents of the same faith have only a 50/50 chance of raising their child to be a churchgoer.