Ideology and Science

Question 1

What do many sociologists see modern science as a product of?

Answer 1

Many sociologists see modern science as a product of the process of rationalisation that began with the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century.

Question 2

How has science impacted society over the last few centuries?

Answer 2

Science has had an enormous impact on society, eradicating many once fatal diseases and changing basic features of daily life such as transport, communications, work, and leisure.

Question 3

What has been the effect of science and technology on economic productivity?

Answer 3

Science and technology have revolutionised economic productivity and raised our standard of living, leading to a widespread ‘faith in science’.

Question 4

What are some negative consequences of scientific advancements?

Answer 4

Pollution, global warming, and weapons of mass destruction are products of science and technology, creating ‘manufactured risks’ that threaten the planet.

Question 5

What distinguishes science from other belief systems?

Answer 5

Science’s cognitive power enables us to explain, predict, and control the world in ways that non-scientific belief systems cannot.

Question 6

How does Karl Popper define science?

Answer 6

According to Karl Popper, science is an ‘open’ belief system where theories are open to scrutiny, criticism, and testing by others.

Question 7

What principle governs scientific inquiry according to Popper?

Answer 7

Science is governed by the principle of falsification, where scientists seek evidence to disprove existing theories.

Question 8

What happens if evidence contradicts a scientific theory?

Answer 8

If evidence contradicts a theory, it can be discarded, allowing the search for a better explanation to begin.

Question 9

What does Popper say about the nature of scientific knowledge?

Answer 9

Popper argues that scientific knowledge is not sacred or absolute truth; it can always be questioned and potentially disproven.

Question 10

How do closed belief systems differ from scientific knowledge?

Answer 10

Closed belief systems claim to have absolute truth, while scientific knowledge is provisional and open to challenge.

Question 11

What is the nature of knowledge in closed belief systems?

Answer 11

Knowledge in closed belief systems is sacred and cannot be challenged, leading to fixed beliefs.

Question 12

How does Horton distinguish between open and closed belief systems?

Answer 12

Horton sees science as an open belief system, while religion and magic are closed systems that cannot be successfully overturned.

Question 13

What are ‘get-out clauses’ in closed belief systems?

Answer 13

Closed belief systems have devices that reinforce the system and prevent it from being disproved, such as witchcraft beliefs.

Question 14

What devices do all belief systems have to sustain themselves?

Answer 14

Polanyi argues that belief systems use circularity, subsidiary explanations, and denial of legitimacy to rivals to sustain themselves.

Question 15

What does Thomas Kuhn argue about mature sciences?

Answer 15

Kuhn argues that mature sciences are based on shared assumptions called paradigms, which dictate what is studied and how.

Question 16

What is ‘normal science’ according to Kuhn?

Answer 16

Normal science is likened to puzzle solving, where scientists work within the paradigm to fill in details.

Question 17

What happens to scientists who challenge the paradigm?

Answer 17

Scientists who challenge the paradigm may be ridiculed and pushed out of the profession.

Question 18

What occurs during a scientific revolution?

Answer 18

During a scientific revolution, scientists become open to radically new ideas when faith in the paradigm is undermined by anomalies.

Question 19

How do critical perspectives like Marxism and feminism view scientific knowledge?

Answer 19

Marxism and feminism see scientific knowledge as serving the interests of dominant groups, rather than as pure truth.

Question 20

How has science been driven by capitalism?

Answer 20

Advances in science, such as theoretical work on ballistics, have been driven by capitalism’s need for certain types of knowledge.

Question 21

What do postmodernists claim about science?

Answer 21

Postmodernists, like Lyotard, argue that science is one of many meta-narratives that falsely claim to possess the truth.

Question 22

What is an ideology?

Answer 22

An ideology is a worldview or set of ideas and values, often used negatively to describe self-sustaining belief systems that are closed to criticism.

Question 23

How does Marxism view society?

Answer 23

Marxism sees society as divided into two opposed classes: a capitalist ruling class and a propertyless working class.

Question 24

What is the goal of the working class according to Marxism?

Answer 24

The working class must overthrow capitalism through a socialist revolution to achieve a classless society.

Question 25

What is necessary for the working class to achieve revolution?

Answer 25

The working class must develop class consciousness to recognize their exploitation as 'wage slaves'.

Question 26

How does the ruling class maintain control over ideas?

Answer 26

The ruling class controls the means of production of ideas through institutions like education and media, producing ruling-class ideology.

Question 27

What are some examples of ruling-class ideology?

Answer 27

Ruling-class ideologies include beliefs that equality is against 'human nature' and racist ideas that divide workers.

Question 28

What is nationalism in the Marxist view?

Answer 28

Nationalism is seen as false class consciousness that divides the international working class and prevents the overthrow of capitalism.

Question 29

How do functionalists view nationalism?

Answer 29

Functionalists see nationalism as a secular civil religion that integrates individuals into larger social units.

Question 30

What role does education play in functionalism?

Answer 30

Education creates social solidarity and may include collective rituals involving nationalist symbols.

Question 31

How do feminists view gender inequality?

Answer 31

Feminists see gender inequality as a fundamental division in society, legitimized by patriarchal ideology.

Question 32

What historical views have justified excluding women from education?

Answer 32

19th-century doctors and scientists claimed that educating women would lead to the creation of a 'new race of puny and unfeminine' females and 'disqualify women from their true vocation' leading negative outcomes for future generations.

Question 33

How have religious beliefs defined women as inferior?

Answer 33

Religious ideologies have often portrayed women as ritually impure, leading to purification rituals.

Question 34

What is an example of a purification ritual in Christianity?

Answer 34

In some Christian churches, a new mother may not receive communion until after she has been churched.

Question 35

Were there matriarchal religions before monotheistic ones?

Answer 35

Yes, before monotheistic religions, matriarchal religions with female deities and priests were widespread.