Origins and Originality of Sufism Flashcards
(34 cards)
Islamic mysticism
Focussed on inner spiritual experiences and a direct connection with the Divine
How much do we know about early Sufi history?
Very little
The Mevlevi Order
Founded by Rumi, practises the Sufi ritual of whirling (sama) as a means of attaining spiritual ecstasy and union with the Divine
Historical Opposition to Ṣūfism
Anti-Ṣūfī polemics date back to the inception of Ṣūfism within Islamic history
Criticisms often revolve around Ṣūfism’s perceived deviation from orthodox Islamic practices and its emphasis on mystical experiences over legalistic adherence
Early Sufis who attempted to legitimise Sufism
Abū Naṣr al-Sarrāj and Abū ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Sulamī
al-Sarraj - defended Sufism against accusations of heresy by grounding it in Qur’an, Hadith, and scholarly tradition
al-Sulami presented Sufism as a chain of transmission (isnād) connecting to the Prophet
Ibn Taymiyya, Refutation of the Sufis
Ibn Taymiyya critiques later Sufi practices that he sees as innovations (bidʿa), especially those that go beyond the Qur’an and Hadith
He challenges mystical experiences and claims of unity with God (waḥdat al-wujūd), considering them theologically unsound and un-Islamic
Key criticisms: Excessive veneration of saints, innovations in worship, focus on Shari’a
Clashes with authorities
Clashes between Ṣūfism and state authorities often centred on Ṣūfī claims of spiritual authority and miraculous abilities
Figures like al-Ḥallāj and al-Ḥakīm al-Tirmidhī faced persecution and even execution due to their perceived challenges to established religious and political hierarchies
Example of controversial practices
The controversy surrounding practices like samāʿ (listening to music) and dancing underscored the tension between Ṣūfī devotional practices and orthodox interpretations of Islamic law
Trial of al-Ḥallāj in 922 CE
Prominent Persian mystic and poet who was executed due to accusations of claiming divinity and making other controversial statements
Led to a self-purification within Ṣūfism, prompting a reevaluation and reaffirmation of orthodox principles
Ṣūfi scholars began emphasising adherence to orthodox Islamic beliefs and practices to avoid persecution and maintain legitimacy
Shift towards orthodoxy (6 points)
Emphasis on Sharia law - Practices that could be perceived as conflicting with Sharia, such as extreme forms of asceticism or mystical rituals, were toned down or reinterpreted to align with Islamic legal norms
Downplaying of controversial practices e.g. Extreme forms of self-mortification or ecstatic rituals
Emphasis on scriptural authority
Rejection of antinomian tendencies - these advocated a disregard for conventional religious norms and laws in pursuit of spiritual enlightenment
Codification of Sufi practices
Integration with mainstream scholarship e.g. al-Ghazālī, The Revival of Religious Sciences, presenting Ṣūfism as a complementary aspect of orthodox Islamic theology rather than a separate and divergent tradition
Shi-ite opposition to Sufism
Particularly regarding doctrinal differences and the role of spiritual authority
In response to Shīʿī objections, some Ṣūfi orders clarified their teachings to emphasise that the shaykh’s authority was complementary to, rather than in competition with, that of the imām
Certain Ṣūfi practices, such as invoking the names of saints (dhikr) or visiting their tombs (ziyarat), faced scrutiny from Shīʿī scholars who viewed them as potentially conflicting with monotheistic principles
Some Ṣūfi orders demonstrated an openness to incorporating aspects of Shīʿī spiritual practices, such as mourning rituals during Muharram, into their own devotional repertoire.
Political Impact of Anti-Ṣūfī Tradition
Ibn Taymiyya’s anti-Ṣūfī tradition had far-reaching consequences, influencing political developments and state policies
Wahhābism, a conservative and puritanical interpretation of Islam, founded on Ibn Taymiyya’s teachings, emerged as a potent political force in Arabia, challenging established religious institutions and practices
The spread of Wahhābism led to the persecution of Ṣūfis in regions where it gained dominance, including Saudi Arabia and parts of North Africa
Edward Palmer
English orientalist and explorer
‘Sufism is not Moslem, it is the primordial religion of the Aryan race’
Palmer - analysis
The claim of primordial religion raises theological questions about universality and exclusivity in religious traditions
Sufism’s self-understanding often implies it expresses a universal religious truth, not limited to Islam
Religious traditions typically assert unique access to ultimate truth, while atheists deny any primordial religion
The term ‘Aryan race’ reflects 19th-century racial ideology, which must be disentangled from theological claims
PC - Al-Kharrāz
Presents the Primordial Covenant as a metaphysical agreement made by souls with God before embodiment
PC - Seyyed Nasr (3)
Covenant as ‘being identified with the Logos itself, the Prophetic Substance coincides with the religion that is celestial, subjacent, primordial, and universal’
Human souls made a covenant with God in which they ‘proclaimed God’s absolute sovereignty and lordship’
After this point, according to al-Kharrāz, a Sufi, human’s lower natures distracted them from this covenant, which Sufism seeks to return to
PC - Al-Tustarī
Links dhikr to a reliving of this covenant, achieved through tawakkul (trust) and tawba (repentance)
PC (4)
Primordial Covenant
Sufis interpret this as a divine contract where the soul acknowledges God as its Lord, and this pre-eternal knowledge influences their mystical journey to reconnect with God during their lifetime
The covenant signifies an ontological orientation toward divine unity, disrupted by nafs (lower self)
The theological implication is that divine recognition is a human universal, not an Islamic particular
Qur’an 7:172
‘And ˹remember˺ when your Lord brought forth from the loins of the children of Adam their descendants and had them testify regarding themselves. ˹Allah asked,˺ ‘Am I not your Lord?’ They replied, ‘Yes, You are! We testify.’ ˹He cautioned,˺ ‘Now you have no right to say on Judgment Day, ‘We were not aware of this.’
Describes a pre-temporal moment where all souls acknowledge God as Lord
Asceticism
Baghdad Sufis emphasized turning away from the dunya (world) to attain ma‘rifa (gnosis)
Asceticism can be controversial in Islam because it may undermine the importance of the body as a trust from God, emphasizing denial rather than the proper care, gratitude, and responsibility towards one’s physical health
Karamustafa
Notes asceticism, seclusion, and faqr (poverty) as central but not universally required in Sufism
Massignon (asceticism)
Argues for an indigenous Islamic origin of Sufi asceticism, rooted in early pious movements
Christian texts support asceticism
Luke 9:23 - ‘If any want to become my followers, let them deny themselves and take up their cross daily and follow me’
Christianity also cautions against asceticism
Colossians 2:18 - ‘Do not let anyone disqualify you, insisting on self-abasement and worship of angels, dwelling[a] on visions’
