Origins of Cold War

Question 1

Ideology of capitalism

Answer 1

(USA and Britain)
- Free Market economies
-Individual freedom without state control
-Businesses would compete, competition beneficial for all
-Political freedom (free, multiparty elections)

Question 2

Ideology of communism

Answer 2

(The USSR)
-Founding father of communist ideology was Karl Marx
-Russian Revolution in 1917 led to the creation of first communist state in Russia, led by Lenin
-Belief that capitalism led to the exploitation of the working people by the ruling bourgeoisie

Question 3

Tensions at Yalta

Answer 3

-By the beginning of 1945, the marriage of convenience (the Grand Alliance) between Britain, USA and USSR was beginning to show cracks
-Roosevelt was committed to post-war reconstruction based upon unity among the victorious powers
Stalin’s guarantee of security through a network of Eastern European allies was in fundamental conflict with this view.

Question 4

The Yalta Conference

Answer 4

• 4th to 11th February 1945
  -Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill met in the Crimean city of Yalta
  -Represented a high point of inter-allied cooperation

Question 5

Differing objectives at Yalta

Answer 5

USA/Britain:
-Long term cooperation w. USSR
-Germany’s reeducation and reconstruction
-The right to national determination
-World economic reconstruction through the World Bank
USSR:
-Germany to remain weak for the foreseeable future
-The USSR’s security guaranteed through Soviet Spheres of influence in Eastern Europe
-Cooperation with the Anglo/Americans
-Economic reconstruction for USSR (at expense of Germany)

Question 6

Agreements at Yalta

Answer 6

-Germany and Berlin would be divided into 4 zones, each administered by an allied power
-The United Nations Organization would be formally ratified
-The USSR would gain land from Poland, and Poland would be expanded to the North and West.
-A declaration on Liberated Europe should be created

Question 7

Relations between Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill: Stalin

Answer 7

-USSR devastated after WW2, approx. 25 million dead, mass destruction of cities and towns, agriculture and industry.
-Lasting security became a priority for Stalin and him and Foreign Minister Molotov saw the Grand alliance as fundamentally anti-USSR.
-Despite this, Stalin wanted to keep open an avenue of cooperation with the West.

Question 8

Relations between Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill: Roosevelt

Answer 8

-Commitment to cooperation, however commitment was founded on the certainty that the post war world should strongly reflect the American concept of democracy.
-Roosevelt was convinced that Stalin shared the same understanding and values inherent in the confirguration of the post war world.
-Roosevelt was certain he could secure a non communist, future for the states of Eastern Europe.

Question 9

Relations between Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill: Churchill

Answer 9

-Churchill was convinced it was Stalin’s intention to expand Soviet Power in post war Europe
-Churchill believed that the Soviet Union could threaten Britain’s imperial interests and Britain must form a close alliance with the USA in order to counter this potential threat
-arranged the ‘percentages agreement’ with Stalin, underlined Churchill’s determination to control Soviet expansion in Eastern Europe.

Question 10

Percentages agreement

Answer 10

-October 1944, Churchill and Stalin met in Moscow
-Establish the predominance Britain and the USSR would have in eastern European states
-Eg: Romania the USSR would have 90% while in Greece Britain would have 90%. In Hungary it was to be 50% each.

Question 11

The Potsdam Conference

Answer 11

-17th July to 1 August 1945
-War had ended in May 1945 in Europe, however the war in the Pacific against Japan continued.
-Stalin was committed to aiding the Western Powers in this fight.
-Roosevelt’s death in the April meant he was replaced by his vice president Harry Truman, Clement Attlee replaced Churchill on 26th July after winning general election.

Question 12

Atmosphere at Potsdam:

Answer 12

-The day before the Potsdam conference, the first successful detonation of the USA’s atomic bomb had taken place
-Truman had hoped this would provide the US with the diplomatic leverage needed to ensure Stalin stayed loyal to agreements made at Yalta
-Potsdam was characterized by Truman’s abrasive diplomacy and Stalin’s determination to not be intimidated by USA’s nuclear monopoly.

Question 13

Agreements made at Potsdam

Answer 13

-Germany was to be completely demilitarized and disarmed
-De-Nazification was to be carried out
-Decentralisation of political system
-Freedom of speech and free press to be restored, and religious tolerance
The USSR was to receive reparations from its own zone, and 25% from Western Zones

Question 14

Relations between Truman, Stalin, Attlee: Truman

Answer 14

-Truman came to quickly regard confrontation rather than cooperation as the basis for relations with Stalin
Hoped the USA’s possession of nuclear technology would be the key to ensuring Stalin’s cooperation
-Feared the growth of Soviet power in Eastern Europe
Became increasingly convinced the USSR was not receptive to diplomatic solutions, and some form of force may be necessary for Soviet compliance.

Question 15

Relations between Truman, Stalin, Attlee: Stalin

Answer 15

-By Potsdam, Stalin was convinced the US and allies were potential rivals for dominance in Europe, reinforced his obsession with Soviet security, and necessitated the Red Army’s presence in Eastern Europe.
-Stalin had an unspoken but clear agenda for Eastern European states.

Question 16

Relations between Truman, Stalin, Attlee: Attlee

Answer 16

-Events since Yalta had confirmed to Britain that Stalin was expansionist in Europe.
-British foreign policy from this point became clearly focused on an anti-communist Soviet Stance
-Attlee’s concerns over Potsdam: weakened Germany, no long term future of Germany.

Question 17

Why did Potsdam fail?

Answer 17

-Increased tensions over USA’s nuclear monopoly
-No long term future plan for Germany
-Tension over the future of Eastern European states
-Stalin’s failure to implement his agreements on Poland and the declaration on Liberated Europe made at Yalta causing tensions
Potsdam did nothing to reinforce the notion of international cooperation aimed at reconstructing a long term future for post war Europe.

Question 18

Soviet occupation/Control of Eastern and Southern Europe

Answer 18

-Stalin’s initial intent, to establish a defense zone to the West of the USSR was completed by 1948.
-In order to do this, it was common for communists to form alliances with other left-wing parties, and then take control of them.
-Opposition candidates were often intimidated, and election results were manipulated.
-The war had left Eastern European states with mass unemployment and economic chaos - communism provided a better prospect than capitalism.

Question 19

Poland’s fall to Soviet Influence

Answer 19

-The pro-Stalin Lublin Government was established and became Stalin’s instrument of political control.
-The Provisional Government of National Unity was formed in June 1945, containing parties from both ends of the political spectrum.
-Polish communists became the dominant group in Poland after the mergence of the communists with the polish socialists. However, some Polish communists,
for example deputy prime minister Gomulka, were not fully pro-Moscow.
In 1948, Gomulka was accused of ‘Nationalist deviation’ and was replaced by a pro-Stalinist.

Question 20

Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary fall to Soviet influence

Answer 20

-Romania: communists were popular as they offered an alternative to the post war regime, additionally the Red Army occupied Romania.
-Bulgaria: manipulated elections and the forced removal of opponents characterized the takeover. Strongest political opponent was the leader of the Agrarian Party, Nikola Petkov. Won over 20% in October elections but was faced with trumped up charges, and was executed. By April 1947, all other political parties were banned.
-Hungary:
-Communist party gained control through rigged elections and opponents arrested.
-Did not display level of loyalty Stalin desired, in 1949, leader Laszlo Rajk was executed for ‘anti Soviet’ activities.

Question 21

Czechoslovakia’s fall to Soviet influence

Answer 21

-Czech communists were popular among the rural peasants as had given them land at the end of the war.
-The Czech communist party leader, Klement Gottwald became prime minister, his fatal error accepting Western economic aid in 1947.
-Alternative right wing group created, highly respected president Edvard Benes agreed to support, he resigned in June 1948, leaving pro Moscow communists in complete control.

Question 22

Yugoslavia

Answer 22

-Yugoslavia’s leader, Josip Broz Tito was a committed Stalinist
-By 1948, it was clear that Soviet influence over Yugoslavia was limited
-The Yugoslavs simply refused to become Soviet puppets
-In June 1948, Yugoslav9ia was expelled from Cominform
-The country was only able to survive because of USA’s economic aid

Question 23

Kennan’s ‘Long Telegram’

Answer 23

-22nd February 1946.
-George Kennan was the charge d’affaires in the US embassy in Moscow, he sent a lengthy dispatch to the US state department in Washington.
-Favoured adopting a hard line against the USSR, to him communism was uncompromising in it’s ideological threat to the free world.
-An inevitability about the collapse in East-West relations.

Question 24

Content of the ‘Long Telegram’

Answer 24

-Emphasized that the USSR viewed the West as hostile and menacing
-Argued that the US must be prepared to use force, and adopt a proactive role in Europe

Question 25

The 'Iron Curtain' speech

Answer 25

-6 March 1946 -Churchill (not PM anymore) delivered a direct attack on Soviet Policies -Convinced Stalin that the US was working with Britain to carry out an anti Soviet ideological assault.

Question 26

Greek Civil War

Answer 26

-Stalin had agreed the Greece would remain in the Western Sphere of influence after the war. When Greece had been liberated from Nazi occupation, a civil war erupted between monarchists and Greek communists. -Britain had been providing aid to anti-communist forces in Greece but in Feb 1947 it was announced the aid was no longer available, and appealed to the US.

Question 27

The Truman Doctrine

Answer 27

-Was a US foreign policy announced by President Truman on 12th March 1947. -Marked the start of the US's containment policy -Asked US congress for $400 million for aid for Greece and Turkey -Asserted the US would protect the 'Free peoples' resisting 'attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures'

Question 28

Cominform

Answer 28

-Creation of Communist information Bureau (cominform) to unite and coordinate the role and actions of communist groups throughout Europe in order so that the communist Party functioned as a untied whole under Moscow. -In response to the change in view that the USA was engineering an anti-Soviet, US led global alliance.

Question 29

The USA's policy towards Britain and Europe

Answer 29

-Under-secretary of state William L. Clayton concluded that Europe was steadily deteriorating as millions of people faced the prospect of starvation -He argued that without a substantial increase in US aid, Europe would face social, economic and political disintegration on a regional scale.

Question 30

The Marshall Plan

Answer 30

-PPS (Kennan's policy planning staff) emphasised the view that US aid to Europe should be upon the restoration of Europe's economic strength rather than on combatting communism. -5th June 1947, George Marshall unveiled his plan, known officially as the European recovery plan. -Over the next 5 years, the plan provided $13.5 billion to 16 European countries.

Question 31

Consequences of the Marshall Plan

Answer 31

-The Soviets saw the Marshall Plan as another act of American economic imperialism. -They believed that this US influence might start spread to Eastern Europe and thereby undermine their sphere of influence and security. -In July 1947, the Soviets walked out of the Paris Peace Conference and by September had established cominform. -Czechoslovakia and other Eastern European states that had expressed an interest in the Marshall plan were ordered by Stalin to reverse their decisions -The Marshall Plan accelerated the division of Europe and further undermined the possibility of international relations being based on some form of cooperation.

Question 32

The four Zones of Germany

Answer 32

-Each of the 4 zones of post war Germany had a military governor, but each could be administered differently. -The powers were to coordinate their actions through the Allied Control Committee (ACC) to enable political and economic unity in Germany. Decisions made by the ACC had to be unanimous

Question 33

The Soviet Zone

Answer 33

-Stalin recognized the utility of a centralized German Party system, the USSR were willing to accept the founding of four political parties in the Soviet Zone, these were -Communists -German Social Democrats -Liberals -Christian Democrats The soviet intention was that the communist group would emerge as the dominate group, however this did not happen as the Soviets would have liked and so merged SPD (German social democrats) and KPD (communists) by the Soviet Military Administration of Germany and a new party (German socialist Unity Party SED) was formed in February 1946. The soviet zone was increasingly being seen as a place of Tyranny and oppression by Germans in the Western Zones, and therefore Stalin could not dominate politics on a national level as hoped. Unilateral policies were introduced in this zone: -Land Reform -Nationalization of large industrial products -Compulsory tuition in the Russian language for German School pupils.

Question 34

The British Zone

Answer 34

-North Western Part of Germany, consisted of about 22.5 million people and included the major port of Hamburg and the industrial area of the Ruhr. -Costly to feed and increased Britain's dependence on the USA. The primary fear of Britain by Spring of 1946 was that a revived Germany would cooperate with the USSR, or become dominated by it. On 23rd August 1946 Britain's military Governor in Germany created the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, it was at this point Britain committed to the merging of US and British zones.

Question 35

American Zone

Answer 35

-In summer of 1945, Kennan made it clear that the US must develop in its zone in Germany a degree of independence and economic security. -General Lucious Clay's position by spring of 1947 was: no to the Soviet demand that the Ruhr. should be placed under joint allied control no to the Soviet desire to create Centralized Germany. no to the social and economic deprivation if Germans in Western Zones. The US allowed free elections in its zone and regarded the German lander (state) as the basis for a future national structure based on federalism.

Question 36

The French zone:

Answer 36

Up to 1947, France had called for the complete dismemberment Of Germany and for the internationalization of the Ruhr in particular. Ultimately the French position was was to support the creation of 2 German states with the Western Parts allied and influenced by the western powers.

Question 37

Bizonia

Answer 37

In January 1947, the British and the USA zones were merged economically into what was known as Bizonia. The American position was that this was consistent with what was agreed at Potsdam. It was a clear indicator that the four zones in Germany had failed. This, and the Marshall Plan, was a fundamental factor in the development of a divided Germany. The Soviet response was to oppose Bizonia, The council of ministers (USSR, USA, Britain, France, China) met at the Moscow conference in March/April 1947. The USSR demanded a new central administration should be created, this requested failed and no decision was made.

Question 38

Currency Reform

Answer 38

-Between February and June 1948, Britain, France and the USA and the Benelux states met in London and the decision was taken to introduce a new currency into Western Zones in Germany . -Greater economic stability and the beginnings of a separate and distinct West German state. -On June 1948, The London conference occurred and it was agreed that West Germany should have a formal constitution.

Question 39

The Berlin Blockade

Answer 39

-June 1948-May 1949 On 24th June 1948, the day after the new western backed Deutsch Mark was introduced, the Soviet Union blocked all roads and rail links to the Western Zones and to West Berlin through the Soviet Zone. -Britain's foreign secretary Ernest Bevin became the prime mover in driving the allied response to this soviet blockade. -He argued that the Soviet's ultimate aim was to spread communism across the whole of Germany, and their pressure to oust the Western powers from Berlin was the first step in this process. In may 1949, Stalin ended the blockade, failing in his aim to prevent the creation of a separate western state.

Question 40

The Creation of East and West Germany

Answer 40

-Thje western allies drew up a constitution which was approved in early 1949. The first elected leader of this state was Konrad Adenauer. -The new Western State was still subjected to an occupational statute, which gave Britain, France and the USA the authority to determine final decisions on West Germany. -The USSR was initially reluctant to establish a permanent division of Germany, however by March 1949, aa constitution for an Eastern Germany had been assembled. -One party state system -By October, the new East German state has been officially formed.

Question 41

The formation of NATO

Answer 41

-The USA's thinking in the early stages was that an Atlantic alliance, rather than a purely regional European alliance should be created. -For the US, an Atlantic alliance, soon to be known as the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation was a means of reassuring Western European states in the face of possible Soviet military aggression. -On April 4th 1949, NATO came into being, Article 1 of the agrrement defined the military parameters 'to settle any international disputes...by peaceful means' -Article 5 stated 'The parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America is an attack against them all'.

Question 42

Soviet response to NATO

Answer 42

-Alexander Panyushkin, the Soviet ambassador to the United States argued that NATO was an aggressive organisation designed to pressurise states into complying with the interests of Britain, US and their allies. -The UUSR emphasised their lack of intent to attack any European state.