Widening of the Cold War 1949-55 Flashcards
(28 cards)
Reconstruction of Japan
-As early as 1947, the USA introduced what became known as it’s ‘reverse course’ towards Japan.
-It wanted the development of of firm democratic institutions and practices towards an emphasis on economic stability.
-Japan’s recovery was seen by the US as an essential element of its power base in eastern Europe.
-By the start of 1949, MacArthur, as supreme commander for the allied powers (SCAP) had received clear direction from Washington, including things like:
-Increased regulation of (foreign) trade
-A balanced Budget
-Price controls
-Wage controls
-More efficient taxation system
Japan wanted to become an active member of world institutions and US demanded it join General agreement on Tariffs and trade (GATT) - strengthened trade with US and Western powers but prevented trade with communist China from late 1950s.
US-Japanese relations
-Japan’s geopolitical significance to the USA entered a new phases when in February 1950, communist China’s leader, Mao Zedong, formed an alliance with the US.
-Lead to the globalisation of containment, and suddenly Japan became crucial in the US’s quest to contain communism in the Far East.
-Japan’s prime minister Shigeru Yoshida saw an opportunity to negotiate a second World War peace treaty with USA to restore Japan’s security and sovereignty in return for the acceptance of US troops on their territory. US chief negotiator was John Foster Dulles.
The San Francisco Peace Treaty
-This treaty, between Japan and the Allied powers was drawn up in September 1951.
The Treaty did not place restrictions on Japan’s economy or future political model or identify Japan’s responsibility for the War or restrict Japan’s future rearmament.
-USSR and people’s Republic of China refused to sign this agreement.
In return for the Treaty, The US required Japan to sign a bilateral security agreement known as US-Japan security agreement 1951.
-It gave the USA unrestricted use of military bases in Japan, administrative control of Owkinawa (A Japan island)
-It also gave the USA the right ti use military force to intervene in any internal disorder in Japan, and the right to veto Japan offering military bases to other states.
Japan’s rearmament
MacArthur ordered Japan to establish a strong 75,000-strong National Police Reserve (NPR) to be trained by a US military advisory team.
-In August 1952, the Japanese government established a force of 110,000 ground troops and 7600 maritime personnel, collectively known as the National Safety Agency (NSA)
-Plans were announced for Japanese air force in Nov 1952, and the Eisenhower administration in 1953, under Dulles as secretary of state wanted to enlarge ground forces. By 1954 it was agreed that a new 140,000 strong self defence Force should be created. -Funding from US of $240 million.
USA’s support for Jiang Jieshi
Jiang Jieshi (sometimes referred to as Chiang Kai-Shek) was China’s nationalist, anti communist leader, after defeat in the Chinese Civil War in 1949, he was effectively exiled to become the leader of the republic of China based on the Island of Taiwan.
Mao was concerned that the USA would support an exiled Jiang Jieshi from Taiwan.
In June 1949, the Chinese Communist party announced its allegiance to the USSR.
The USA’s statergy towards China was defined in the China White Paper July 1949. Dean G. Acheson (Marshall’s successor as Secretary of State) was committed to supporting the KMT in Taiwan, but thought this should be done secretly.
The defensive Perimeter Strategy
-Acheson reviewed the USA’s policies towards the Far East in early 1950. His thinking focused on the military security of the Pacific and the policy the USA should develop to ensure this.
-He argued that military defence of Japan was the responsibility of the USA, this would be achieved in the first instance by defining what Acheson described as a ‘defensive perimeter’ running from the Aleutians to Japan, and from Ryukyu to the Philippine islands - military security of these places.
-Was criticized for omitting Korea.
NSC-68
In September 1949, The US’s neculear monopoly ended when the USSR tested their own atomic bomb. This, in addition to Truman’s so called ‘Loss of China’ triggered a fundamental review of the USA’s strategic objectives and priorities.
-This emerged in the form of The National Security Council Resolution 68, stressing the urgency of of building the USA’s political, economic and military power.
-It focused on the globalisation of the Cold War and there was a powerful miliatry emphasis on the application of containment.
Causes of Korean War: Kim Il Sung and Syngman Rhee
-Kim Il Sung emerged as a chairman of the newly formed Korean Provisional People’s Committee (NKPPC), this acted as a provisional communist government.
-The American’s wanted a provisional government in SK that was made up of anti-communist representatives, Syngman Rhee emerged as the USA’s favoured anti-communist leader.
Position of Syngman Rhee
-Had a long association with the USA, having lived there for 40 years.
-He was a powerful propagandist for Korean nationalism.
-Wanted to reunite Korea as a sovereign country that would not tolerate communism in any form.
-Rhee needed a guarantee from the US that they would protect SK from any attack from the North and provide military aid.
position of Kim Il Sung
-Committed to using force as the vehicle to unification.
-Development of extensive guerilla action by the North, aimed to destabilise the South.
Kim Il Sung developed a strategy based on winning external support, pressurizing both China and the USA.
he focused on 4 issues in order to persuade Stalin to support an attack on the South:
-it would be a rapid and decisive victory
-there were already 200,000 communist supporters in the South
-Well organized guerrilla forces set up in the North
-The USA would not have time to intervene.
Position of the USSR in supporting North Korea
-rejected Kim Il Sung’s pleas for support, suggesting Sung should strengthen the guerilla forces in the South.
-by Feb 1950, the international scene had changed and so had Stalin’s position, Chinese communists had defeated the nationalists and SK had not been included in Defensive Perimeter Strategy. Stalin agreed to provide NK 1600 pieces of artillery, 178 military aircraft and 258 T-34 tanks.
-In April 1950, Stalin made it clear to NK that he would not commit Soviet forces if they faced conflict with the US, indirect military support was the best option.
China’s position in supporting Kim il Sung’s regime
-Mao’s immediate priorities in 1949 were focused on consolidating control in China.
-Mao was not particularly concerned about the future of Korea, and when theNorth initially invaded China did not do anything to intervene, even as late as April 1950.
-It was response to the US actions that activated China’s involvement in the war.
-Mao was committed to sending ‘military volunteers’ to support NK
-In Nov 1950, China would be compelled to intervene due to pressure from Stalin, but at the start of the war Mao did his best to stay out of the conflict.
The USA’s policy to Korea pre war:
-Until 1949, the USA’s national security priority in Asia was Japan, as the USA’s top focus was ensuring the USA’s national security.
- The USA regarded The USSR as its greatest threat, and the focus was on Europe rather than Asia, assuming the defensive Perimeter states were secured.
-The NK invasion fundamentally re-orientated US policy towards Korea. In May 1951, Dean G. Acheson took the view that North Korea’s purpose was to destablilise Japan, Southeast Asia and the Philippines.
The United Nations policy to North Korean invasion
-As soon as the invasion was made known, the USA requested a special session of the security council. (USSR was boycotting the secuirty council over the USA regocnising Jiang Jieshi as leader of china, not Mao)
-Truman was able to legitimise intervention on Korea by turning the process into a UN intervention, removing the possibility of the USA appearing to be unilaterally implementing containment of a global scale.
Military involvement in Korean War
Phase 1:June-September 1950 (offensive)
-Forces of the democratic republic of Korea advanced into South Korea and reached a perimeter close to Pusan.
Chinese troops were massed n Manchuria in readiness for a move into Korea.
-Through the UN, 29 states committed to military, economic or medical aid.
Phase 2 September-Nov 1950 (counter-offensive/offensive)
-MacArthur landed in Incheon and succeeded in forcing NK forces back across the 38th Parallel.
-In October, Mao sent 300,000 troops across the Yalu River into North Korea.
-This led to a major counter attack against UN forces.
Stage 3 and 4 of military intervention
Phase 3: December 1950-June 1951, (stabilization and negotiation)
-By January, Chinese forces had pushed across the 38th parallel and captured Seoul.
-In February, the UN condemned China as an aggressor.
-Due to his demands that the US forces should push into NK and engage the Chinese, and use air strikes and nuclear weapons against them, MacArthur was dismissed by Truman.
-By June 1951, the USA was indicating to China and USSR its willingness to negotiate a ceasefire.
Phase 4 June 1951 -July 1953 (stalemate and peace)
-Neither side mounted any significant military offensives during this time period
-The lack of UN action convinced Mao and Stalin there was genuine desire for peace.
-The USA had consolidated its relationship with Japan and so felt more secure in the Far East.
-Long delays in reaching a final settlement due to a natural disinclination to cooperate with each other.
The Settlement of The Korean war:
-Negotiations started in July 1951, but not until July 1953 was an armistice agreed in Panmunjom.
-Rhee obstructed negotiations as wanted to commit the USA to stronger ties with SK, additionally a significant factor to the delay was Stalin’s death in March 1953. In the immediate term he was replaced with more complaint George Malenkov.
The Panmunjom Armistice agreement confirmed:
-There was to be a military demarcation line with a demilitarised zone 2km each side, this line was roughly the 38th parallel.
-All military forces should withdraw to their respective territories.
-The repatriation of prisoners would begin.
Impact of Korean War
-Long term security of both the North and South Korea was protected. - no further warfare should take place on the Korean Peninsula.
-Put huge economic pressure on the USSR and this led to Stalin accelerating the industrialisation of Eastern Europe, reducing availability of consumer goods.
-The Korean war was described as the limited War, in the sense that its purpose was the restore the status quo through the prevention of the spread of communism into SK.
-Also lead to the strengthening of military resources in Western Europe, Western Germany was allowed to rearm, and this war led to the deepening of CW uncertainty in Europe.
SEATO
-Sino-Soviet alliance formed in 1950 was strengthened in May 1953, with the USSR agreeing to provide defence related technology to China. The USSR provided significant economic and technological aid/expertise to strengthen China’s security and economy.
-It was in response to what seemed to be close sino-soviet relations that John Foster Dulles brokered a defensive alliance based on SouthEast Asia in September 1954
-SEATO was a collective defense treaty, with members including New Zealand, Australia, Philippines,Thailand,Pakistan, GB, France, US
FRG and NATO
-Konrad Adenauer, the first chancellor of the federal Republic of Germany (FRG) recognized that the best way of strengthening his country was to align West Germany to the Western Powers.
-In November 1949, the FRG joined the council of Europe, and received the right to have direct representation on the Organisation of European Economic cooperation (OEEC).
-By May 1952, The general treaty, signed in Bonn, abolished the statue of occupation, thereby recognizing the full sovereignty of FRG.
-In May 1955, with the support of US pressure on France, West Germany was admitted to NATO.
The Warsaw Pact
-The West’s decision to allow West Germany rearm and join NATO prompted the USSR to further consolidate its relations with the satellite communist states of eastern Europe.
-The Soviet Union’s influence on eastern Bloc states was managed by through the cooperation of each communist party in each country, these parties acted as agents of Soviet influence. This led to the creation of the Warsaw Pact.
members included:
-Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, Poland, USSR.
-Was seen by the Soviets as a way of legitimising their influence in Eastern Europe, and was presented as a collective security strategy, non threatening alliance.
New Look policy: rollback
Containment had simply created a stalemate, Eisenhower (comes into office Jan 1953) and Dulles wanted to roll back communism and Moscow’s power as part of a strategy to bring the Cold War to a successful conclusion.
-However, despite Eisenhower’s acceptance of the principle of liberation, he insisted this could only occur through peaceful means. Eisenhower never tried to undermine the USSR’s sphere of influence.
New Look: Massive retaliation
-Eisenhower and Dulles saw containment as a strategy that demanded, potentially, a global reaction to any communist expansion that might occur.
-Under Eisenhower, nuclear weapons assumed much greater significance as the basis for a US national security strategy and the USA’s Cold War stance.
-additionally, a NSC 162/2 report of October 1953 emphasized the view that the most effective way to deter aggression against Western Europe was for the US to forcefully display its determination to use nuclear weapons against any aggressor.
New Look: brinkmanship
For Dulles, the USA’s nuclear arsenal was not only a source of deterrence against soviet attacks, it was also a diplomatic tool. The USA could use nuclear strength to attempt to force agreements from communist opponents, up to very point war may break out. - Dulles referred to this type of nuclear diplomacy as Brinkmanship. Dulles believed a failure in conducting brinkmanship would result in defeat.
