OSSD Exam Review Flashcards
1
Q
what is the difference between alpha and beta glucose
A
alpha has H on top for first carbon while beta has OH on top
2
Q
is glycogen alpha or beta
A
alpha
3
Q
is starch alpha or beta
A
alpha
4
Q
is cellulose alpha or beta
A
beta
5
Q
what are some properties of glucose
A
ringed
carbohydrate
can be oxidized
soluble
stable
6
Q
which starch has 1,6 glycosidic bonds
A
amylopectin
7
Q
describe nature of amylose + amylopectin
A
amylose
- linear
- coiled
- 1.4
amylopectin
- branched
- 1,6 + 1,4
- more compact (3D)
8
Q
are starches soluble
A
no (large and polar carbohydrates)
9
Q
does glycogen have 1,6 glycosidic bonds
A
yes
10
Q
describe nature of glycogen
A
branched
coiled
1,4 and 1,6
stored in liver and muscles
11
Q
describe nature of cellulose
A
b glucose
cell wall
straight chain
composed of microfibrils
glucose alternates in polymerization (1,4)
12
Q
what holds microfibrils together
A
H bonds
13
Q
is cellulose strong
A
yes
14
Q
what are the functions of glycoproteins
A
act as markers
act as receptors
acts as ligands
structural support
15
Q
how many antigens are there in blood groups
A
two
16
Q
where are triglycerides synthesized
A
liver
17
Q
are triglycerides solid at room temp
A
yes
18
Q
what are some examples of triglycerides
A
blubber found in aquatic mammals
butter
lard
19
Q
what is the distinguishing factor of sterols
A
4 fused carbon rings
20
Q
describe the nature of waxes
A
waterproof
high melting point
solid at room temp
21
Q
what is the equation for the formation of triglycerides
A
3 fatty acids + glycerol = triglyceride + 3 H2O
22
Q
what is the equation for the formation of phospholipids
A
2 fatty acids + mod glycerol with phosphate = phospholipid + 2 H2O
23
Q
what are some examples of condensation reactions
A
formation of
- phospholipids
- triglycerides
- polypeptide chains
- disaccharides
- most forms of polymerization
24
Q
define nature of saturated fatty acids
A
straight
no double bonds
packed tightly
25
whats an example of saturated fatty acids
meats
26
define nature of unsaturated fatty acids
one or more double bonds
bends
no tight packing
liquid
27
example of polyunsaturated fatty acids
vegetable oil
28
example of monounsaturated fatty acids
olive oil
29
define cis and trans fatty acids
cis has H on same side in the kink
trans has H on opposite sides in the kink
30
define endotherms
organisms / animals that rely on metabolic reactions to generate heat
31
what is adipose tissue
tissue that stores energy and insulates your body
32
define amphipathic
a molecule with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
33
define and identify the role of cholesterol
a steroid found in the phospholipid bilayer, typically on one layer and regulates fluidity and stability based on environmental changes (temp)
34
define proteins
complex macromolecules that consist of one or more chains of amino acids (polypeptides)
35
what are some functions of proteins
catalysis
signalling pathways
structural support
36
what is the term associated to the middle carbon in an amino acid
alpha carbon
37
what is the equation for the formation of a dipeptide
AA + AA = dipeptide + H2O
38
equation for N terminus
NH2
39
equation for C terminus
COOH
40
which terminal does additional amino acids get added to
C terminus
41
define essential amino acids
amino acids that are essential for bodily functions that your body cannot produce
42
define non-essential amino acids
amino acids that are essential for bodily functions that your body can produce
43
define the genetic code
set of rules of how DNA should translate
44
what is translation
mRNA to protein
45
what is transcription
DNA to mRNA
46
how is the genetic code degenerative
multiple codons code for same amino acid which can allow silent mutations (changes in DNA that does not change the amino acid sequence)
47
what are silent mutations
changes in DNA that does not change the amino acid sequence
48
what are two examples of single chain proteins
myoglobin (stored in muscles for oxygen storage)
lysozyme (breaks down microbial components in tears / saliva)
49
define denaturation
the alteration in a protein's structure that causes it to degrade its function
50
what can cause denaturation
pH and temperature
51
how does pH affect protein structure
affects the solubility of the protein in specific
52
how does temperature affect protein structure
disrupts H bonds present holding the complex together
53
if an R group is negatively charged, is is acidic or basic
acidic
54
if an R group is positively charged, is it acidic or basic
basic
55
describe the nature of alpha helices
helix structures (secondary structure) that are local and occur between the O and H of amino acids 4 residues away in sequence
56
describe the nature of beta pleated sheets
flat sheets (secondary structure) that are local and occur between amino acid residues that are adjacent and run parallel
57
define primary strucure
sequence of AA in a chain
58
define secondary structure
local pleating and folding
59
define tertiary structure + types
R group interactions
- disulphide covalent bonds
- h bonds
- ionic bonds
- hydrophobic interactions
60
define integral proteins
proteins that contain hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions that are embedded inside the membrane
61
define peripheral proteins
proteins that contain hydrophilic regions that are peripheral of the membrane
62
define quaternary structure
the interactions between polypeptide chains and their arrangement in relation to one another
63
define the term conjugated in reference to proteins and non-conjugated
conjugated: contains non amino acid components
non-conjugated: only contains amino acid components
64
example of a conjugated protein
haemoglobin
65
what is the nature of globular proteins
spherical
soluble
amphipathic
66
what is the nature of fibrous protein
strong
insoluble
thin
67
example of a fibrous protein
collagen
68
example of a globular protein
haemoglobin
69
can lipid soluble materials pass the bilayer
yes
70
can small uncharged polar molecules pass the bilayer
mostly yes (mostly permable)
71
can large uncharged polar molecules pass the bilayer
mostly no (mostly impermeable)
72
can charged particles pass the bilayer
no
73
define osmosis
the movement of water from low to high solute concentration or high to low water potential across a selectively permeable membrane
74
define facilitated diffusion
diffusion that is aided by either carrier or channel proteins
75
what is an example of facilitated diffusion through a carrier protein
GLUT transporter (glucose into RBC)
76
what is an example of facilitated diffusion through a channel protein
sodium and potassium channels (not pump)
77
define active transport
movement of molecules from low to high concentration (against gradient) that is aided by a protein that uses energy
78
describe the working of the Na/K pump ATPase
1. open to interior of cell and 3 Na bind (ATP binds)
2. ATP hydrolyzes and pump changes to open outside
3. Na discard and 2 K bind to pump
4. Phosphate detaches and conformational change to open to the interior of the cell and K discards
79
does indirect active transport require ATP, why?
does not, the other substance that is going by its gradient drives the secondary substance
80
what are the functions of glycoproteins / glycolipids
cell recognition
cell adhesion
cell signalling
81
what direction do substances flow according to the fluid mosaic model
laterally
82
define endocytosis
bulk transport of materials into the cell
83
what is an example of endocytosis
phagocytosis --> solid particles (ex: WBC pseudopodia with pathogens)
pinocytosis --> small "drinking" ingestions of extracellular fluid to regulate internal pressure
84
define exocytosis
bulk transport of materials outside of the cell
85
what is an example of exocytosis
glycolipids produced in ER, modified in golgi, get sent out of the cell (membrane)
86
what is the typical resting membrane potential of a nerve cell
-70mV
87
define electrochemical gradient
the difference in electrochemical charge across a membrane
88
does the exterior or interior have a higher concentration of sodium
exterior
89
does the exterior or interior have a higher concentration of potassium
interior
90
define action potential
rapid sequence of changes in the voltage across a membrane
91
describe the change in action potential in a neuron
1. stimuli causes opening of Na gate
2. sodium diffuses into neuron (depolarization)
3. action potential travels down the neuron
4. sodium channel closes and potassium channel opens after a certain voltage is reached
5. potassium diffuses out of the neuron (repolarization)
6. potassium channel closes, ATPase regulates the membrane potential back to rest (-70mV)
92
where is nAchR found
neuromuscular junctions
93
what does nAchR do
a neurotransmitter gated ion channel for sodium
it diffuses in when Ach binds to it
cholinesterase then breaks down Ach instantly
94
what is an example of indirect active transport
cotransport of sodium + glucose to epithelial cells
involved in the nephron
95
what are the 3 junction types
adhesion
tight (seal)
gap (movement of molecules)
96
what defines an organelle
specific function or membrane bound
97
what is an example of compartmentalization
lysosomes (prevents enzymatic activity and damage to other areas of the cell were this process is unneeded)
98
what is post transcriptional modification and why is compartmentalization important
removal of fragments of mRNA and is important to prevent translation into a protein in cytoplasm
99
what are stacked thylakoids called
grana / granum
100
what connects thylakoids
lamellae
101
what side are ribosomes bound to in rough ER
cytosolic side (facing cytoplasm)
102
what are cis, medial and trans golgi specification
receives from ER, receives for internal use, receives for external use
103
what is clathrin + its use
formation of vesicles, its polymerization acts as a skeleton for this formation. its role is not fully understood at this time
104
how many cells are found in the morula
16-32
105
what are the parts of a blastocyst
trophoblast (outside) + inner cell mass
106
define differentiation
the process where a cell becomes specialized for specific functions
107
what are morphogens
form giving molecules / chemicals that influence the differentiation that occurs in stem cells
108
what are totipotent stem cells
can give rise to an organism
109
what are pluripotent stem cells
differentiate into any body cell
110
what are multipotent stem cells
differentiate into closely related cells
111
what are unipotent stem cells
can only divide into that type of cell
112
what are some examples of flattening to increase SA:V
golgi and cristae
113
what are type 1 pneumocytes
substances that are thin and flat that cover the alveoli and allow for gas exchange to occcur
114
what are type 2 pneumocytes
cuboidal in shape, small protrusions that enter alveolar space to secrete surfactant
115
why do skeletal muscles have multiple nuclei
to produce proteins for O2 storage and use
116
what are some adaptations for egg cell
larger
round
many nutrients
permeable membrane
117
what are some adaptations for sperm cell
small
motile (flagella)
mitochondria present
enzymes in acrosome cap for penetration
118
what are some factors of efficient gas exchange
large SA
permeability (thin)
concentration gradient
moist layer
119
what are some adaptations for mammals in gas exchange
dense network of blood vessels
double circulatory system
continuous blood flow
ventilation
120
what is the role of surfactant
reduce surface tension to allow partial collapsing of alveoli
121
what are some adaptations for alveoli in specific that aid in gas exchange
dense bed of capillaries
moist layer
thin layer
concentration gradient
many of them (increase SA)
122
explain the role of the intercostal muscles in inhalation, exhalation and forced exhalation
inhalation
- external contract
- internal relax
exhalation
- both relax
forced exhalation
- external relax
- internal contract
123
what are some factors that affect lung capacities
age, body composition, lung volume, genetics, sex, diseases, amount of physical activity
124
what do baroreceptors do
detect changes in pressure
125
what do baroreceptors do when pressure decreases
detects, sends info to medulla, increase in heart rate (vasoconstriction)
126
what do baroreceptors do when pressure increases
detects, sends to medulla, reduce in heart rate (vasodilation)
127
what do chemoreceptors do
detect changes in CO2, O2 and pH
128
what do chemoreceptors do if pH decreases
means there is more CO2 and therefore must increase ventilation
129
why does CO2 make blood more acidic (less pH)
it forms carbonic acid in aqueous solution
130
does fetal or adult haemoglobin have a higher affinity and why
fetal, presence of gamma chains are stronger than beta chains. harder to discard oxygen in tissues / cells
131
HbA vs HbF vs myoglobin, which has highest O2 affinity
myoglobin
132
what happens to haemoglobin when oxygen binds to it
induces cooperative binding, allows multiple oxygen to bind to the complex with more ease, increasing its affinity for oxygen. reason for the S shape of the dissociation curve
133
what happens if carbon dioxide is in high concentrations in the blood?
higher CO2 pressure results in oxygen dissociation curve to shift right, decrease in pH alters solubility and structure, thus decreasing affinity for every level of pressure for oxygen
134
what is a bohr shift?
a shift in the oxygen dissociation curve
135
describe cytokinesis in plant cells vs animal cells
plant cells
- a cell plate forms due to various vesicles containing cellulose components and other necessary resources to split the cell into two
animal cells
- actin and myosin proteins form a contractile ring between the two nuclei and induce pinching off to form two separate cells
136
explain why unequal cytokinesis is essential
for increased allocation of resources towards germ cells such as egg cells and allows for life to be sustainable
137
what makes asexual reproduction so diverse
crossing over + independent assortment with two sets of DNA
138
what is the term for the failure to assort properly in anaphase
non-disjunction
139
what is the term for down syndrome
trisomy 21
140
equation for possible combinations in independent assortment
2^n (n = haploid number)
141
what are the stages to the cell cycle
G1, S, G2, mitosis
142
what are cyclins
proteins that regulate the cell cycle (bind to CDKs to allow for cycle to continue)
143
how can mutations occur
errors in genetic code
ionizing radiation
mutagenic chemicals
144
what are oncogenes and what do they do
mutated proto-oncogenes and have uncontrolled cellular division
145
how do you calculate mitotic index
number of dividing cells / total cells
146
describe the stages of spermatogenesis
1. spermatogonia divide mitotically into primary spermatocytes
2. primary spermatocytes divide via meiosis into secondary spermatocytes
3. secondary spermatocytes divide via meiosis II into spermatids
4. spermatids undergo spermiogenesis and form sperms
147
describe the stages of oogenesis
1. oogonia divide mitotically into primary oocytes
2. primary oocytes divide via meiosis I but are capped at prophase I until the onset of puberty
3. when puberty occurs, meiosis I completes to form secondary oocytes + first polar body and meiosis II starts but is capped at metaphase II
4. upon fertilization, meiosis II completes and forms a mature egg / ovum + second polar body
148
what is the female part of the plant and its parts
pistil (ovary, style, stigma)
149
what is the male part of the plant and its parts
stamen (anther, filament)
150
what is the term for when gened differ by a few bases
alleles
151
define true breeding
crossing an organism that always passes on its phenotypic trait
152
what is PKU
a recessive disorder caused by a mutation in chromosome 12
this gene on chromosome 12 codes for an enzyme that converts Phe to Tyr
if not produced, Phe levels build and become toxic
153
what is codominance
when both alleles are expressed equally
154
what is incomplete dominance
when both alleles are mixed and expressed
155
what are some sex linked disorders
colour blindness
haemophilia
156
what is haemophilia
the disorder in which the F8 gene that encodes for clotting factor VIII is not created, resulting in the lack of blood clotting. can lead to excessive bleeding and major loss of blood
157
where does blood enter the kidney
renal artery
158
what are the functions of the kidney
ultrafiltration
reabsorption
secretion
159
outline the roles in ultrafiltration
afferent arterioles bring blood to nephron
filtration occurs in bowman's capsule in glomerulus
blood leaves via efferent arterioles
160
outline the roles in reabsorption
filtrate passes through proximal convoluted tubule
transport to loop of henle (ascending has no aquaporins)
flows through distal convoluted tubule
collecting duct finally absorbs anything (osmoreceptors can regulate amount of aquaporins in collecting duct)
161
what are the two cycles in the menstrual cycle
ovarian cycle
uterine cycle
162
outline the processes in the ovarian cycle
1. follicular phase --> LH and FSH secreted, causes oestradiol secretion. follicles enlargen
2. ovulation --> LH and FSH causes follicles to become large and eventually rupture, releasing mature egg
3. luteal phase --> FSH + LH drop, oestradiol + progesterone increase, inhibiting FSH and LH
163
outline the processes in the uterine cycle
1. proliferative --> oestradiol secretion as follicle grows
2. secretory --> progesterone influences uterine lining to thicken
3. menstruation --> low FSH and LH, decrease in progesterone + oestradiol
164
IVF reproduction processes
individual is given FSH in abundance to produce more than 1 egg per month
given hCG to speed up maturation of the egg and follicle production
165
define locomotion
ability for an organism to move its entire body from one place to another
166
define sessile
immobile organisms / fixed in one place and rely on the environment for resources
167
what is a cross bridge
structure when myosin head binds to actin
167
outline the relationship between the bands in contraction for muscles
I and H bands decrease, A band increases
168
outline the process of contraction in muscle fibres
electrical stimuli causes release of calcium
binds to troponin and undergoes conformational change
pushes tropomyosin away (ATP required)
myosin head then binds to actin site
ATP hydrolyzes and pulls myosin head back to original
ATP attaching causes myosin head to detach
169
what is the role of titin in muscle relaxation
stretches when sarcomere does and stores potential energy
170
outline the process between motor neuron and muscle fibre
axon terminal of motor neuron releases neurotransmitter (acetylcholine)
diffuses across synaptic cleft in neuromuscular junction
binds to receptors on muscle cell and triggers opening of calcium channel
171
what are synovial joints + example
joints separated by synovial fluid and have cartilage on the bones. ex: hip joint
172
what direction do external + internal intercostal muscles run
external --> downwards
internal --> upwards
173
what are some reasons for locomotion
foraging
running from predators
migration
reproduction
174
what are some marine mammal adaptations
streamlined bodies
flippers and tails
higher amount of myoglobin
more blood
large SA:V
175
what is the role of synergids
guide the pollen tubes towards the egg cell
176
what is the role of the central cell in the ovule of a plant
to fuse with secondary sperm (double fertilization) to form endosperm for nutrition to nourish the embryo
177
what are hermaphrodites
organisms with male and female reproductive parts
178
outline role of pollination
pollen lands on stigma
germination
pollen tube forms
generative cells split into sperm cell
entry and fertilization
179
outline stages of male hormone production in puberty
puberty initiated by GnRH
releases LH + FSH
LH makes testosterone
FSH makes sperm
180
outline stages of female hormone production in puberty
puberty initiated by GnRH
releases LH + FSH
makes progesterone (inhibits LH + FSH)
makes oestradiol (inhibits GnRH)
181
what is the primary defence system
skin / mucous membranes
182
what is the second defence system
immune response
183
what are the steps of phagocytosis
recognition
pseudopodia
maturation
lysosome fusing
enzymes digesting
184
what do plasma b cells produce
antibodies (y shaped)
185
what are the two types of t-cell
cytotoxic (kills infected cells)
helper (activates cytotoxic and b cells)
186
how do t cells get activated
antigen presenting cells demonstrate fragments that then activate t cells and cytotoxic t cells along with b cells
187
how do b cells get activated
recognition of antigen present on membrane allows activation, can be through helper t cell sending a signal to b cell to activate and release antibodies
188
what are the stages of HIV
acute: high conc, high transmission, high multiplication
chronic: low conc, low transmission, low multiplication, last several years
final stage: cannot fight off opportunistic infections
189
why do antibiotics not affect humans / eukaryotic cells
antibiotics either alter the reproduction of bacteria or instantly kill them and this can be done through the interference in the polymerization of peptidoglycan in bacteria cell walls, that is not found in human / eukaryotic cells. prevents cross linking, lysis occurs
190
how does antibiotic resistance occur
either through slight mutations in the bacteria, becoming resistant through adaptations or for prolonged exposure to the antibiotic, in which certain protein pumps can discard the antibiotic or enzymes can break down the components in the antibiotic
191
what is the term for bacteria that is resistant to multiple antibiotics
MDR bacteria
192
what is the term given to pathogen when they break the species barrier
a crossover with zoonotic pathogens
193
what are vaccines
substances that provide immunity to a specific disease
194
what is immunization
when bodies develop an immunity to a specific pathogen / disease
195
what are the types of vaccines
live attenuated
DNA
RNA
196
what is herd immunity
immunity that occurs in a community when a certain percentage of individuals are immune to a specific pathogen / disease. this is beneficial to individuals who cannot get vaccinated for reasons associated with their immune system
197
which cells myelinate neurons in PNS
Schwann cells
198
which cells myelinate neurons in CNS
oligodendrocytes
199
what are the types of neurons
sensory
interneuron
motor
200
how does temperature affect conductivity velocity in neurons
hotter = faster lol
201
what is a neuromuscular junction
junction / synapse between a motor neuron and muscle fibre as the effector cell
202
what is a neuroglandular junction
junction / synapse between neurons and glands
203
what is saltatory conduction
the conduction that occurs when an action potential travels between nodes of Ranvier in myelinated neurons (higher speed)
204
what are exogenous chemicals
chemicals that originate outside of the body
205
explain how nicotine can induce paralysis
it can bind to AchR and prevent the binding of Ach to R, thus preventing the transmission of Ach rather abruptly
206
explain how cocaine can be addictive
uses dopamine as a reward pathway, and binds to dopamine reuptake receptors to build up the amount of dopamine and release in amplified waves to give a feeling of sensation. multiple receptors can be placed if needed with more cocaine concentration
207
what does helicase do
unzips the double helix structure of DNA into two strands by breaking the H bonds present
208
what does DNA polymerase III do
binds to the independent strands of DNA and attaches free fragments / nucleotides to the strand to create the double helix upon replication (5' to 3')
209
what does DNA polymerase I do
discards the RNA primers that DNA primase has placed
210
what does DNA primase do
adds RNA primers to indicate starting points for replication for polymerase III
211
