outcome 1

Question 1

what is slandered English?

Answer 1

The variety of English that a community has determined to represent that community’s established variety of written and spoken English, and is formally codified in dictionaries and other official language resources.

Question 2

Referential function

Answer 2

Describes language users sharing information with their intended audience. The message is presented as fact, regardless of whether it is true.

Question 3

Emotive function

Answer 3

Allows users to express emotions and desires.
This function is about the addresser and their presentation of emotion - real or not.

Question 4

Conative function

Answer 4

Involves directions, questions and commands. Messages with a conative function aim to cause the audience to react in some way.

Question 5

Phatic function

Answer 5

Creates and maintains social connections between the writer or speaker and their audience. These messages are somewhat meaningless outside a social context.

Question 6

Metalinguistic function

Answer 6

Describes language itself. It is language used to describe language. This function can be used to check for understanding.

Question 7

Poetic function

Answer 7

Focuses on the message itself, rather than the communicators. It is sometimes referred to as the aesthetic function; texts are created with consideration to beauty or wit of the words

Question 8

Register

Answer 8

Register describes the way an addresser intentionally alters their language to suit the situation (aka use-related variation).

It involves all features of language and levels of formality.
Register is determined by lexical choices, syntax and pronunciation.

Some registers are easily defined such as doctors or lawyers or speak in a medical or legal register characterised by elements such as their use of formal language and jargon (technical or specialised language).

Other registers are not so clear, and can be merged to achieve a particular purpose.

Question 9

Tenor

Answer 9

The relationships between the participants of a communicative exchange. This is informed by the situational and cultural contexts of the text and is informed by:

Social status

Professional roles

Personal relationships

Social distance
Overall, we are referring to how this relationship shapes the way language is used.

Question 10

Audience

Answer 10

The audience is the intended listener’s to or reader/s of a text. The familiarity of an audience to the speaker or writer will influence the register of the text, e.g., a speaker may be more informal when addressing a familiar audience.

Question 11

Context

Answer 11

Situational context: This refers to the extralinguistic circumstances that influence language use, including field, tenor, language mode, setting and text type.
>FARTS
Field: semantic field/domain, Audience, Relationship/Tenor, Text type and mode, Setting

Cultural context: This refers to the extralinguistic circumstances that will influence language use, including the values, attitudes and beliefs of the speaker, writer and/or interlocutor(s) or audience.
>VIBA
values, identity, beliefs, attitudes

Question 12

Metalanguage, Colloquial language

Answer 12

Colloquial language: a type of casual and relaxed informal language that is often location specific.
Slang: Newly formed words and phrases that are commonly found in very informal texts. They can be playful in nature, or even suggestive or crass

Question 13

Metalanguage, Slang

Answer 13

Slang: Newly formed words and phrases that are commonly found in very informal texts. They can be playful in nature, or even suggestive or crass

Question 14

Metalanguage, Taboo language

Answer 14

Taboo language: Language that is considered inappropriate or insulting by a large portion of a society

Question 15

Metalanguage, Dysphemism

Answer 15

Dysphemism: An inappropriate word or phrase that is intentionally used in place of a more neutral word, to intensify the impact of the utterance

Question 16

Metalanguage, Swearing

Answer 16

Swearing: The use of a specific set of terms, often intentionally though sometimes unintentionally, that are deemed rude and offensive within a particular culture.

Question 17

colloquial language, connected speech process

Answer 17

where words are reduced or modified. In written texts the lexical choices are spelt as if they were spoken
ex. Im ..gonna.. go out

Question 18

colloquial language, idiomatic expressions

Answer 18

words, phrases or expressions that have figurative meaning, not directably translatable or understood be diff cultures

ex.
im gonna call into work…chuck a sickie..

Question 19

colloquial language, contraction

Answer 19

a word formed by removing same letters replacing them with ‘. reduce formality in written texts not necessary for spoken
ex.
aren’t

Question 20

colloquial language, Abbreviation

Answer 20

BTW, info.

Question 21

colloquial language, informal syntax and grammar

Answer 21

sentence fragments
ex.
cause
Y’know
aren’t
nothin’

Question 22

colloquial language, ellipsis

Answer 22

omission of words/ phrases, can occur when there is shared knowledge/ context between people
-both formal + informal however more informal (since it prioritises efficiency + ease of communication)

ex.
you going too?
-omission of are

Question 23

colloquial language, regionally specific language

Answer 23

informal words or phrases that are commonly used in a specific region, not widely understood. arise from cultural, historical or social influences serve as linguistic markers.
ex.
mate, bogan

Question 24

colloquial language, shortening of names

Answer 24

nicknames casual affectionate and or efficient

Question 25

purposes: intimacy

Answer 25

the authentic and personalised results of informal language can work to develop a sense of closeness, familiarity and personal connection. Colloquialisms and slang establish shared understanding and connection between interlocutors.

Question 26

purposes: Solidarity

Answer 26

a sense of shared purpose or unity can be developed through use of collective language and focus of common experiences. Words of encouragement foster solidarity as does drawing on shared knowledge and experiences (including inside jokes and references).Use of collective pronouns create a sense of inclusivity. Emotive function can be used to foster a sense of emotional connection and unity.

Question 27

purposes: Equality

Answer 27

language that is used to blur hierarchies and create a sense of shared participation and mutual respect, regardless of social status, role or power. Colloquial language and slang are equalising features and present a image of authenticity and relatability. As above, collective pronouns support. Inclusive interrogatives (questions) work to include participants. Nicknames and informal use of first names are markers of equality

Question 28

Building rapport

Answer 28

a sense of friendliness, harmony and shared understanding is developed through informal authentic and relaxed interactions.Colloquialisms, slang and swearing support this in appropriate situational and cultural contexts by demonstrating trust and connection. In The wrong contexts, these features can cause offence.

Question 29

Code Switching:

Answer 29

moving between languages in a single interaction. Common among speaker who know the same languages.

Question 30

Phonological patterns

Answer 30

Alliteration: repetition of initial phonemes Consonance: repetition of consonant sounds within words Assonance:repetition of vowel sounds in words Onomatopeoia: words created from the sounds they represent Rhyme: repetition of similar phonemes at the end of words Rhythm: repeated patterns of intonation across phrases, clauses or sentences.

Question 31

Morphological patterns (word formation processes)

Answer 31

Abbreviation: umbrella term for processes of shortening a word including Shortening: removal of syllables to shorten the word, i.e. influenza > flu Contraction: combining two or more words, usually by deleting letters and adding an apostrophe, e.h. Cannot > can’t Initialism: abbreviation formed by initials, each pronounced, e.g., By The Way > BTW Acronym: abbreviation formed by initials, pronounceable as a new lexeme, e.g., NASA, laser Affixation: addition of bound morphemes, including prefixes, suffixes and infixes, e.g., abso-bloody-lutely Compounding: formation of a word by combining words or stems, e.g., greenhouse, viewpoint Blending: combining words with phonemic overlap (overlap of syllable sounds), or eliminating phonemes, e.g, brunch, smog Backformation: formation by removing actual or supposed affixation e.g., Editor > edit Conversion of word class: changing clas of a word, such as using a noun to represent a verb, e.g., google, email

Question 32

Morphological patterns Use in informal texts

Answer 32

- Used for efficiency, such as in texts - Can be specific to community, therefore support in-group membership

Question 33

Phonological patterns Use in informal texts

Answer 33

Add emphasis, or make texts memorable or engaging Often used in advertising Creative or entertaining

Question 34

Syntactic patterns Use in informal texts

Answer 34

- Dramatic effect, humour, persuasion, emphasis, rhythm - Demonstrate shared knowledge and close social distance - Efficiency

Question 35

Syntactic patterning

Answer 35

Listing: collection of three or more related elements, separated by commas or bullet points. E.g., I like reading, cats and eating cake; We invited the strippers, Hitler, and Stalin. Parallelism: Two or more phrases, clauses or sentences that are structurally similar; repetition of syntactic structure. E.g., it takes ones to know one; I came, I saw, I conquered. Antithesis: parallelism using contrasting elements, often antonyms, e.g., easy come, easy go;, the long and the short of it.

Question 36

Semantic patterns Use in informal texts

Answer 36

- Humour, sarcasm, playfulness and creativity - Cohesion and coherence - Metaphor, simile and idiom are culturally specific

Question 37

Semantic patterns

Answer 37

Figurative language: words or phrases used for non-literative meanings. Features of semantic patterning are forms of figurative language - use the most specific metalanguage you can. Metaphor: a figure of speech in which one thing is said to be another Simile: a figurative comparison using ‘like’ or ‘as Personification: attributing human characteristics to non-human entities or inanimate objects. Animation: bringing inanimate objects to life using motion and expression. E.g., The words leapt off the page. Irony: a speaker of writer states one things, but means another, usually the opposite. Includes sarcasm, understatement or backhanded compliments. Oxymoron: combining contradictory words or phrases for contrasting effect, evoking humour, irony or emphasis. E.h., bittersweet, virtual reality. Hyperbole: exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally. E.g., I’ve told you a thousand times. Lexical ambiguity: existance of two or more possible meanings of a single word Puns: exploitation on lexical ambiguity for humorous or rhetorical effect. Relies on phonological, orthographical or semantic similarity

Question 38

Coherence and cohesion

Answer 38

Cohesion: the use of grammatical and lexical techniques to link words together to create meaning; how the elements of a text form the whole How a text holds together. Coherence: the logical and meaningful organisation of a text; the arrangement of ideas, information and elements for successful communication. Whether a text makes sense.

Question 39

ECLAIR: Cohesion

Answer 39

E - Ellipsis, repetition and substitution C - Collocation L - Lexical choice A - Adverbials and conjunctions I - Information flow R - Reference

Question 40

Cohesion - E

Answer 40

E - Ellipsis, repetition and substitution Ellipsis: the omission of words or phrases, when already known. Information is assumed; avoids repetition. Substitution: when alternative words, phrases or clauses are used in place of the original. Avoids repetition. Repetition: Use of the same word throughout a text; can include inflectional modifications. can strengthen a point or argument; can unintentionally result from spontaneous speech.

Question 41

Cohesion - C

Answer 41

C - Collocation Collocation: refers to words that are commonly and predictably grouped together. Uses informal collocations, idioms and fixed phrases.

Question 42

Cohesion - L

Answer 42

L - Lexical choice Lexical choice: The role of content words - nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy and hypernymy: hyponyms are words that are subtypes of larger categories called hypernyms - Indicates shared vocabulary; uses slang and colloquial language.

Question 43

Cohesion - A

Answer 43

A - Adverbials and conjunctions Adverbials: words, phrases or clauses that provide information; often signpost time, place or manner (i.e. firstly, finally). - Link relevant information, improves clarity and flow.

Question 44

Cohesion - I

Answer 44

I - Information flow Information flow: how speakers convey meaning by organising and sequencing language. Information flow can be manipulated to create emphasis, provide context, create contrast, maintain interest or increase readability. Front focus: new information is placed in the initial part of a sentence. Clefting: the modification of syntax to emphasise an element. It-clefting: begins with “it” followed by the emphasised element Wh-clefting: begin with what/who/how and end with the focused element End focus: new and important information placed at the end of sentence or clause. -Spontaneity of informal communication leads to flexible and variable flow

Question 45

Cohesion - R

Answer 45

R - Reference Reference: When an expression is used to refer to another word, phrase or clause (the referent). Anaphoric reference: author or speaker refers to something already mentioned. Avoids repetition. Cataphoric reference: referring to something that will be mentioned later. Builds anticipation or set up expectations. Diectic reference: references within the context of the discourse; signal people, places, objects, time or situations in which a discourse is occurring. Can be used as repairs.

Question 46

Coherence - FLICC

Answer 46

F - Formatting L - Logical ordering I - Inference C - Cohesion C -Consistency and convention

Question 47

Coherence - F

Answer 47

Formatting - Visual features of a text such as: font, spacing, alignment, headings, subheadings, lists, text colour, graphics, margins, white space. Formatting gives prominence to important elements and can contribute to meaning. - Informal texts include less conventional formatting - this includes emoticons, emojis and context-specific graphemes.

Question 48

Coherence - L

Answer 48

Logical ordering: the arrangement of information in a text to maximise understanding. Methods include ordering information chronologically, sequentially, or categorically. - Flow of information is less structured in conversation; topic shifts and changes are more spontaneous.

Question 49

Coherence - I

Answer 49

Inference: the meaning audiences make based on information provided and context factors; conclusions drawn using evidence and reasoning to ‘fill the gaps’ in a discourse. - Rely on listener’s ability to infer based on shared knowledge, assumptions and context, such as shared slang, idiom and cultural references.

Question 50

Coherence - C

Answer 50

Cohesion: textual cohesion - as above - contribute to clear communication ECLAIR.

Question 51

Coherence - C

Answer 51

Consistency: when similar concepts or entities are referred to in the same way throughout a text. Includes consistent formatting, punctuation, font and spacing to create a visually unified text. Conventions: established rules and expectations of how specific text types are structured, organised or presented. Can be genre specific, or field- and domain-specific. - Flexibility of consistency and convention indicates level of informality. Formal texts more rigidly adhere to consistency and convention.

Question 52

Politeness strategies: Metalanguage

Answer 52

Politeness strategies are used to mitigate face-threatening effects and maintain rapport, harmony and politeness. Positive politeness: Language strategies that reflect how another person is valued and positively regarded by others. Negative politeness: Language strategies that respect another individual’s ability to act autonomously and reduce constraints on their freedom. -------- Face needs: the aspect of the listener that is being acknowledged through politeness strategies Positive face: The desire to be seena s competent and liked by others. Need for social recognition, appreciation and inclusion Negative face: the desire to be free from imposition and constraints on autonomy. A need for independence, privacy and freedom to act. Face threatening acts: a communication that may pose a threat to an individual’s positive or negative face, leading to consequences such as embarrassment, loss of face, offence or conflict. May include: Making requests, giving directives, complaining, disagreeing, interrupting, delivering bad news.

Question 53

Positive politeness strategies

Answer 53

Emphasising similarities: Highlighting shared characteristics, interests or values to create camaraderie. Showing interest: Expressing interest in opinion, experiences or emotions through questioning, listening attentively and responding empathetically Using humour: Making jokes, witty remarks and light hearted banter to create a relaxed and friendly atmosphere Offering compliments: Complimenting the audience’s appearance, achievements or abilities to boost their self-esteem Using inclusive language: Using personal inclusive pronouns (we, our, us) to create a sense of belonging and establish common ground.

Question 54

Negative politeness strategies

Answer 54

Hedging Using tentative language to avoid imposing on the listener’s autonomy. Being indirect and ambiguous Using indirect or vague language, such as hints or euphemisms. Listener to infer meaning Using low modality verbs Including modal auxiliaries in interrogatives to indicate possibility or uncertainty, to make requests less imposing. Apologising Make apologies to show deference and acknowledge potential imposition Applying other mitigating strategies Softening the impact or tone of a communication. Includes: polite expressions, tag questions and disclaimers, downplaying, using terms of address, respectful language to address listener or refer to position or status.

Question 55

Discourse features of spoken language

Answer 55

Openings: how a speaker opens a conversation and sets the topic of exchange. Closings: how a speaker indicates a conversation is finishing. Adjacency pairs: sets of phrases that come one after the other. E.g. greetings and response, or question and answer. They can: build rapport, make participants feel included; meet face needs. Minimal responses/backchannels: short utterances and cues that acknowledge the speaker without taking the floor. They maintain conversational flow, signal understanding or show engagement. Can include laughter and non-verbal cues. Overlapping speech: multiple participants speak at the same time -cooperatively or uncooperatively. Cooperative overlaps in informal discourses indicate reduced social distance and can stem from excitement or meeting face needs. Uncooperative overlaps are disruptive.

Question 56

Paralinguistic features include:

Answer 56

Paralinguistic features include: Vocal effects, including whispers and laughter Non-verbal communication, including gestures, facial expression, eye contact Creakiness, breathiness

Question 57

In-group membership and language features

Answer 57

In-group membership is a sense of belonging to any kind of social group, such as a family, community, classroom, friendship group or group defined by a shared interest (i.e., fans of a musician, sports club, etc) In-group membership is supported by use of specific slang, nicknames, and in-jokes that are unique to a particular group. Slang within a community can be used to reinforce identity and belonging of the in-group, while excluding those not in-the-know, the ‘out-group’. Slang that becomes widely known is replaced within the in-group.

Question 58

Emojis

Answer 58

they visual convey meaning while adding nuance to text based messages. -- situational + cultural context heavily shape the meaning of an emoji and they can often act as slang e/ meaning understood with a particular group

Question 59

emoticons

Answer 59

they have been superseded by emojis and are often translated to the equivalent emoji on new devices

Question 60

context specific graphemes

Answer 60

symbols used as shorthand for specific meanings depending on context. they can add to the efficiency of a written communication &- represents and used for style and conciseness @- in email addresses +social media handles ^- "see above" used in multiples for emphasis *- footnotes emphasis censoring swearing or taboo language repairing errors in spelling #- number, hashtag

Question 61

Promoting linguistic innovation

Answer 61

Linguistic innovation is the manipulation of language to create variations of language feature, giving rise to new words, phrases, pronunciations or meanings that reflect changing cultural and societal trends. Informal language promototes innovations through its spontaneous and casual nature. Successful and widespread use of linguistic innovation relies on it: - Meeting communication needs - Gaining support from influential individuals or communities - is easy to understand

Question 62

spoken conversation

Answer 62

the immediacy of dialogue fosters an environment where participants can be imaginative and creative with their use of language - better express the purpose of their communication and their personal and social identity. linguistic innovation in speech can also be used to foster intimacy and solidarity. this is because there is an underlying shared understanding of how new language features contribute to a sense of unity among participants

Question 63

instant messaging

Answer 63

because messaging applications can allow people to communicate over long distances in a style that imitates conversational speech, linguistic innovation can travel globally either through individual text chains or through large group messaging formats such as discord

Question 64

social media

Answer 64

significant role in promoting linguistic innovation for informal texts. the casual style of communication on these platforms promotes linguistic playfulness and experimentation, slang, abbreviation and neologism, all of which foster creativity and the emergence of new language patterns. its a dynamic and ever changing landscape making it challenging to keep pace with the constant evolution of language

Question 65

advertising

Answer 65

seeks to engage the audience and differentiate brands. ad involves creating memorable catchphrases or slogans, introducing unique brand names or coined terms, incorporating cultural ref and employing creative wordplay and humour. through this, linguistic innovation allows companies to convey persuasive message and create memorable experiences that resonate with consumers

Question 66

Promoting social harmony

Answer 66

Promoting social harmony involves language that avoids conflict, is respectful of others’ feelings and promotes shared understanding. It can express agreement, appreciation or mutual interest with intent to foster unity and cooperation. In the face of disagreement, where discussion can get heated, this can be achieved through use of nicknames to maintain friendliness, and use of politeness strategies.

Question 67

Negotiating social taboos

Answer 67

Social taboos are topics sensitive or controversial, or avoided in social contexts. Contextual factors such as subject matter, relationship between participants, age, culture and location influence how when these topics are broached. In order to minimise discomfort or offence while maintaining respect and understanding, politeness strategies such s indirect language and hedging, as well as shared slang are used. Others may make light of taboo topics through humour, slang or linguistic innovation. This acknowledges shared understanding and brings participants closer together.

Question 68

Strategies for topic management

Answer 68

Initiation: introducing a new topic; can be explicit or implicit Development: Progression or elaboration of topic. Shift: move from one topic to another with coherent link Change: Transition from one topic to another Loop: revisiting or returning to a previously discussed topic Termination: Closure of a topic within a conversation. End point of conversation.