Outcome 1 Flashcards

Question

the two Physiological Models for the Stress Response

Answer 1

- Two models for describing and explaining physiological stress responses are called the fight-or-flight-or-freeze response and the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). - Both models describe patterns of involuntary, physiological changes. The changes occur in much the same way in all individuals. - The fight-or-flight-or-freeze response is considered an acute stress response. - The General Adaptation Syndrome is a longer lasting chronic stress response that emphasise the ‘wear and tear’ it may cause to our body.

Answer 2

Any kind of immediate threat to your wellbeing is usually a stress producing experience that triggers a rapidly occurring series of physiological changes. Without our awareness or conscious control, our body immediately responds by activating the fight-or-flight-or-freeze response. The pattern of changes associated with this type of acute stress response are believed to have evolved as part of a survival mechanism and are adaptive reactions. Whether we fight, flee or freeze depends on the situation, genetic predispositions, and the proximity of the threat. --------------------------------------- The fight-or-flight-or-freeze response is an involuntary response to a threatening, fearful or otherwise stressful situation, involving physiological changes produced by the sympathetic nervous system in readiness for: --> a ‘flight’ response – which involves evading or escaping the stressor; for example, quickly running out of your home to escape an intruder. --> a ‘fight’ response – which involves dealing with the stressor directly; for example, picking up a cricket bat to potentially hit an intruder in your home. --> a ‘freeze’ response – which involves the immobilisation of the body such as minimising movement or vocal sounds to avoid detection; for example, hiding quietly in a cupboard when an intruder is in your home.

Answer 3

Both the fight and flight reactions involve a physiological stress response that has two parts which occur one after the other. Each component involves different stress hormones that work together in preparing the body for action to provide adaptive advantages. In fight or flight responses, you experience similar physiological responses, such as increased heart rate, sweaty palms and dilated pupils as a part of an acute stress response. This is because the fight or flight response is activated by the sympathetic subdivision of the autonomic nervous system. ---------------- Both the fight and flight reactions are initiated by the sympathetic nervous system and stress hormones involve changes such as:* increased heart rate and blood pressure.* redistribution of blood supply from the skin and intestines to the muscles. - increased breathing rate (to increase oxygen supply). - increased glucose (sugar) secretion by the liver (for energy). - dilation of the pupils (so the eyes can take in as much light as possible). - suppression of functions that are not immediately essential in order to conserve energy (such as digestion and sexual drive) and which can be delayed without damage to the organism.

Answer 4

The freeze response is also thought to have adaptive and non adaptive value. This type of response is often referred to as ‘tonic immobility’ and includes motor and vocal inhibitions. It is also thought that freezing is a way for the nervous system to prepare to immediately shift into fight or flight action. Therefore, freezing is not considered to be a passive state but rather a parasympathetic brake on certain body systems. For example, our skeletal muscles will be inactive in order to conserve energy but will remain ready for action by being slightly tense.

Answer 5

- Cortisol is considered the primary stress hormone. - Cortisol acts more slowly, and its effects are longer lasting than the other stress hormones. It predominately benefits us in times of chronic stress by: -- boosting our energy levels and increasing blood glucose levels. -- heightening our alertness, increasing the brain’s use of glucose. -- increasing the body’s ability to repair tissue. -- diverting energy from non-essential bodily functions such as digestion, growth and reproduction.

Answer 6

- One effect of the excessive amount of cortisol over a prolonged time is impaired immune system functioning and thereby increased vulnerability to disease. - Elevated cortisol levels also contribute to the build up of fat tissue and to weight gain. The long-term risks for heart attack and stroke are also increased. - Physical health problems associated with higher levels of cortisol in the blood stream include colds, flu, high blood pressure, digestive problems, obesity, atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), high blood sugar level (hyperglycemia) and diabetes (which is associated with hyperglycemia). - Impaired cognitive performance, learning problems, impaired memory formation and recall, and mental disorders such as depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and other anxiety disorders have also been linked to high levels of cortisol in the blood stream for a prolonged period.

Answer 7

- The gut–brain axis (GBA) is a bidirectional (‘two way’), multi-faceted communication link between the central and enteric nervous systems. - It involves direct and indirect pathways between cognitive and emotional areas in the brain with the gastrointestinal tract. - For example, when we feel stressed or anxious, we may end up with an upset stomach due to the signals our brain has sent to our gut. - Disruption in the gut or its activities may affect our mood, emotional arousal, motivation, behaviour and even higher-order cognitive functions such as decision-making and problem-solving.

Answer 8

The ENS controls the digestive system and is directly connected to the CNS via the vagus nerve and gut microbiota. - The ENS coordinates the rhythmic muscle contractions that move material along the digestive tract; it also regulates gastric acid secretion, changes in local blood flow and the release of gut hormones; and it interacts with the immune system. - As in other peripheral nervous systems, the connections between the enteric nervous system and the brain contain both afferent (sensory) nerves and efferent (motor) nerves. - The bidirectional communication that occurs between the CNS and the ENS happens via the vagus nerve and gut microbiota.

Answer 9

- The vagus nerve is one of the body’s biggest nerves, connecting the brain (CNS) to organs within the autonomic nervous system, via nerve fibres that directly link to the pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), lungs, heart, oesophagus and intestinal tract. - The vagus nerve originates in the brain stem and extends to the colon. - The vagus nerve controls many crucial bodily functions, including mood, immune response, digestion and heart rate. - For example, information about the state of the gastrointestinal tract, including pain and discomfort from the gut and feelings of hunger and satiety (fullness), can be sent ‘up’ from the gut to the brain. - Signals are also sent ‘down’ to the gut from the brain, such as initiating salivation and gastric acid secretion on smelling food and anticipating eating.

Answer 10

- Enteroendocrine cells (gut sensor) are specialised cells found in the gastrointestinal tract that produce and release hormones in response to stimuli. Consequently, the food in our gut will influence our brain function within seconds. - These enteroendocrine cells synapse with the vagus nerve. These are known as neuropod cells and are transmitted via an afferent pathway to the brain. - A microbiome is not fixed as its composition can be affected by both internal and external factors, including diet, infection, disease and lifestyle choices.

Answer 11

_ There is mounting evidence that there are bidirectional links between the gut microbiota and stress. - The term gut dysbiosis is used to refer to an unbalanced gut microbiome, either in number or type of microbiota. - Stress can disturb the balance of gut microbiota, and the microbiota can influence susceptibility to stress, physiological stress responses, stress-induced changes in psychological processes and behaviour, stress resilience, and recovery from stress-induced changes. Researchers have found that infants born to mothers who are highly stressed during pregnancy tended to have abnormal compositions of gut microbiota.

Answer 12

- In the 1930s, Hans Selye was conducting research on both immediate and long-term effects of stress. - Most of Selye’s research was done with rats that were exposed to a variety of stressors such as painful tail-pulling, prolonged exposure to heat or cold, mild electric shocks, bacterial infections, strenuous exercise and forced restraint. - Selye observed that the physiological arousal pattern in response to each of these different kinds of stressors was generally the same — adrenal glands were enlarged, stomach ulcers developed, weight loss occurred and there was a shrinking of vital glands of the immune system. WITH HUMANS: According to Selye, any emergency, illness, injury, or an imposing demand at school or work, initiates sympathetic nervous system responses such as increases in heart and breathing rates, slowing of digestive functioning, and so on. The amygdala is important for the activation (non activation) of the stress response. On the basis of his observations of animals, and to a lesser extent people, Selye developed the general adaptation syndrome.

Answer 13

1. Action potential travels down the axon. 2. Vesicles in axon terminals release neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap. 3. Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron. 4. Excitatory or inhibitory signals trigger or prevent action potential. 5. Excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed (reuptake) or broken down by enzymes.

Answer 14

- The first stage of the GAS involves an initial response called alarm reaction which occurs when the person (or animal) first becomes aware of the stressor. - The alarm reaction stage does not usually last very long; sometimes just a few seconds, sometimes longer. - At first, the body goes into a temporary state of shock, and its ability to deal with the stressor falls below its normal level. - Physiologically, the body reacts as if it were injured; for example, blood pressure and body temperature drop, and a temporary loss of muscle tone is experienced. Then the body rebounds from this level with a reaction that Selye called countershock. BIOLOGICAL SYSPTOMS: -acute stress response - loss of muscular tone, lowering body temp and blood pressure RESISTANCE TO STRESSOR: below normal

Answer 15

- During countershock the bodies’ ability to deal with the acute stressor falls above its normal level. - The sympathetic nervous system (SAM) is activated and the body’s resistance to the stressor increases. The organism’s response is a fight– flight-freeze response. It becomes highly aroused and alert as it prepares to deal with the stressor. - Stress hormones adrenaline and cortisol are released into the bloodstream and the organism’s heart and respiratory system respond by accelerating. This supplies the muscles with more energy (glucose and oxygen), allowing the organism to ‘fight or flee’, as needed. BIOLOGICAL SYSPTOMS: -flight or freeze or fight response occurs to deal with stressor - adrenaline and cortisol initially release - muscles tense heart rate and breathing rate increase, pupils dilate RESISTANCE TO STRESSOR: initially below but rises above normal

Answer 16

- During the resistance stage, the body’s resistance to the stressor rises above normal. - All unnecessary physiological processes are shut down. For example, digestion, growth and sex drive stall, menstruation stops, and the production of testosterone and sperm decrease. - cortisol produced by the HPA axis which support resistance continue to be released into the bloodstream to further energise the body and help repair any damage that may have occurred. - However, because cortisol weakens immune system activity, its continuing presence at an abnormally high level interferes with the body’s ability to fight disease and to protect itself against further damage. - Increased glucose and fat levels provide us with extra energy to deal with the stressor, and increased protein concentration in the blood improves the body’s ability to repair any damage. - The suppressing of the immune system problems occur and eventually the body begins to show physiological signs of wear and tear; for example, cold and flu symptoms, sore throat, lethargy and headaches. - In addition, we cannot effectively resist the threat or deal with it properly, which can result in social withdrawal or absence from work or school, moodiness and irritability. BIOLOGICAL SYSPTOMS: -cortisol levels are at their highest - increased energy because of higher blood sugar levels - immune system function impaired - physical signs of wear and tear; for example, cold and flu symptoms, sore throat, lethargy and headaches. RESISTANCE TO STRESSOR: well above normal begin to drop

Answer 17

- During the exhaustion stage, the body runs out of reserves because it has been fighting the stressor for a long time. - The body becomes weak and has a low resistance to physical and psychological illnesses. Energy stores become depleted and excess cortisol in the bloodstream over a long time due to chronic stress impairs the immune system and gut function. - We become more susceptible to a variety of physical and psychological conditions such as infection, stomach ulcers, sleep disturbances, irritability, fatigue, anxiety and depression. - During the exhaustion stage, some of the alarm reaction changes may reappear, but the body cannot sustain its resistance and the effects of the stressor can no longer be dealt with. - High blood pressure can develop into hypertension and heart disease and gastrointestinal problems may also occur. - Changes to body organs may be permanent. In extreme cases, if the stress continues further, the organism may even die. BIOLOGICAL SYSPTOMS: - energy depleted - increased susceptibility to several physical conditions such as infections, stomach ulcers, fatigue and sleep disturbance RESISTANCE TO STRESSOR: well below normal

Answer 18

✅ STRENGTH: - it suggests predictable patterns of responses that can easily be tested in a lab - it identifies various biological processes that occur as a part of stress response, such as hormone secretion and immune system depletion - it is one of the first theories to suggest that stress can weaken the body resistance to illness - there is research and evidence to suggest that the three stages of GAS exist and that the body's non specific response to a stressor is a physiological reality (at least in rats) ❌ LIMITATIONS: - humans and rats are physiologically different. human stress responses tend to be more complex. therefore cannot be generalised - it does not acknowledge the psychological or cognitive processing involved in the human stress response, which can affect how much an individual experiences the stress response - it does not account for individual difference in stress response. for example disorders (Ignores psychological factors)

Answer 19

Researchers have identified many and varied psychological factors that cause or influence how we respond to stressors. These include our: - Prior experience with stressors and stress responses - Attitudes and motivation - Level of self-esteem - General outlook on life (e.g. optimism versus pessimism) - Personality characteristics - Coping skills - Perception of how much control we have over a stressful event

Answer 20

- In primary appraisal we evaluate/judge the significance of the event for me. - For example, we may ask questions such as ‘Is this something I have to deal with?’, ‘Am I in trouble?’, ‘Is there any benefit?’ and ‘Does this matter to me?’

Answer 21

If we decide that the situation is stressful, then we engage in additional appraisals that involve deciding if a situation is harmful, threatening and/or challenging. Threat – anticipated harm/loss in the future because of the event. This is characterised by fear, anxiety ; for example, you failed your Psychology SAC and now you do not know whether you will get the study score you need. Harm/loss – damage to the individual that has already occurred. This is characterised by sadness, despair or anger; for example, failing your SAC means that you have lost valuable marks that could have gone towards your study score. Challenge – perceived to have the potential for personal gain or growth. This is characterised by eagerness, excitement and exhilaration; for example, you see failing your SAC as an opportunity to improve your study skills. If an event has been established as stressful, something must be done to manage the situation and so secondary appraisal occurs. Is this event stressful? If yes → Threat? Harm/loss? Challenge?

Answer 22

If deemed NOT to be stressful, it will be further categorised as either benign/positive or irrelevant: Irrelevant – the situation or event has no implications for the individual’s wellbeing; that is, nothing is to be gained or lost by them and they are not invested in the situation; for example, a SAC gets changed to an earlier date for a subject that you do not do at school, so it does not affect you. Benign/positive – the outcome of a situation or event is perceived as positive; that is, it either maintains (benign) or enhances their wellbeing (positive). It is characterised by pleasurable emotions such as joy, love and happiness; for example, you are happy that you have moved to a new house If the individual has deemed the event to fit into one of these categories, they will not need to perform any further appraisal.

Answer 23

Secondary appraisal is where the individual evaluates their ability to control or overcome the situation in which they find themselves. This includes the evaluation of available resources, to decide the best way of dealing with the stressor. The coping options and resources available may be internal (e.g. strength and determination) or external (e.g. money and support from family and friends) The individual then enacts a coping strategy or effort, which results in an outcome. If there are inadequate recourses this may lead to further stress

Answer 24

✅ STRENGTH: - acknowledges the psychological determinants or causes of the stress response - Recognizes individual differences in stress perception. - Explains psychological coping strategies. ❌ WEAKNESSES: - difficult to test through experimental research as its subjective of individual responses to stress - it does not allow for individual variation in progression through its stages as primary and secondary appraisals have been found to interact with one another and often occur at the same time - Does not consider physiological responses (e.g., cortisol)

Answer 25

A coping strategy is considered to have context-specific effectiveness when there is a match or ‘good fit’ between the coping strategy that is used and the stressful situation. Example When experiencing stress about upcoming exams, a coping strategy that focuses on taking positive action, such as planning, time management and study would be suitable for many students in that situation, whereas coping strategies such as ‘mental distancing’ (not thinking about the exams at all) or ‘wishful thinking’ (hoping for good grades) while engaging in minimal study are likely to be detrimental.

Answer 26

Ability to effectively modify or adjust one’s coping strategies according to the demands of different stressful situations - Recognise whether a strategy is appropriate - Select an appropriate strategy - Recognise when a strategy is not working - Stop using an ineffective strategy - Produce an alternate coping strategy when required

Answer 27

Approach coping strategies: - confront stressor and deal directly with it and its effects - activity focussed TOWARD the stressor example: - Seeking professional advice or counselling and implementing strategies - Making a plan and executing it - Making a list of ways to approach the stressful situation Avoidant coping strategies: - evade a stressor and deal indirectly with it and its effects - activity focussed AWAY from the stressor Making a list of pros and cons example: - Denial - Wishful thinking - Re-evaluation - Substance abuse - Venting emotions - Distraction - Sleeping and eating

Answer 28

BENEFITS: - Are generally considered to be more adaptive and effective than avoidance strategies. - Tend to experience fewer psychological symptoms and can function more effectively than people who rely more on avoidance strategies LIMITATIONS: - Initially, or in the short term, may increase stress levels while the individual is directly engaged with the stressor and its causes - May require a lot of the individual’s energy and focus to deal with the stressor, which means they may neglect other aspects of their lives.

Answer 29

BENEFITS: - Selectively avoiding dealing with unchangeable aspects of a stressor by ‘switching off’ may be considered an adaptive strategy. - Allows you to conserve energy to focus on other stressors that can be changed. - Can be more effective in coping with stress in the short term. - Ignoring a stressor for a couple of days while focusing on other things can provide ‘time out’ from a stressor while minimizing potential stress from another source. LIMITATIONS: - Tend to be maladaptive. - Excessive reliance on this strategy tends to be associated with several negative consequences, e.g. increased vulnerability to mental health problems, hypertension and cardiovascular disease. - Long-term use can also contribute to other problems, e.g. delinquency, socially inappropriate behaviours and substance abuse.

Answer 30

- identification of the population. - identification of conditions of the independent variable. - identification of the dependent variable. - a directional prediction.

Answer 31

When conducting a between-subjects design, participants are only exposed to one condition of the experiment and the groups are compared based on the DV. - An experimental design in which individuals are divided into different groups and complete only one experimental condition.

Answer 32

When conducting a within-subjects design, participants are exposed to both conditions of the experiment. Their results from each trial are compared.

Answer 33

When conducting a mixed-method design, researchers will use aspects of within-subjects and between-subjects designs to collect data. This design allows researchers to compare between each condition (between groups) but to also measuring change over time within the individual group members.

Answer 34

Random sampling - every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected. Basically a lottery. More representative than convenience. Stratified sampling - dividing the population into subgroups (strata) then selecting a sample from these subgroups in the same proportion as it is in the population, eg based on age, gender, academic qualifications.

Answer 35

Correlational studies investigate the relationship between two variables. When conducting a correlational study, the research is only measuring variables and not manipulating them. Therefore, this type of research does not determine cause-and-effect.

Answer 36

Controlled experiments aim to determine causation – that is, that a change in one variable causes a predictable change in the other variable. In comparison, correlational studies aim to determine correlation – that is that there is an association between variables.

Answer 37

CASE STUDIES are an intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour, activity, event or problem of interest in a single individual, group, organisation or situation. ---ADVANTAGE: - provide a useful way of obtaining detailed information on behaviour and mental processes. --- DISANDVANTAGE: - They cannot test or establish a cause–effect relationship as does a controlled experiment - a small sample size is another limitation. By their very nature, case studies usually focus on rare or unusual individuals - time-consuming and cannot be generalised OBSERVATIONAL studies, or fieldwork, are a methodology that involves investigation through observing and interacting with an environment in a naturalistic setting. For example, a researcher may decide to observe students in a classroom. ---ADVANTAGE: - researchers can watch and record spontaneous, everyday behaviour without the need for any manipulation or intervention. --- DISANDVANTAGE: - it cannot be used to determine the cause of the behaviour of interest that is observed, because many factors may influence that behaviour and there is a lack of control of such variables. - observer bias

Answer 38

the characteristics individual participants bring to an experiment and which could influence their responses. They can be biological, psychological or social in nature. CONTROL: - Use a larger sample (random sampling) to ensure population is represented

Answer 39

are external factors (other than the IV) associated with the experimental setting that may influence participant responses and therefore the results. CONTROL: Elimination or Minimisation – If a situational variable (e.g., background noise) could affect results, it should be removed (e.g., using a soundproof room) or kept at the same level for all participants. Balancing/Equalising – If different testing environments are used (e.g., two rooms), participants from each condition should be equally split between them to reduce bias. Randomisation – Participants should be randomly assigned to conditions to ensure that any uncontrolled variables (e.g., time of day) affect groups equally. Standardisation – All participants should experience the same procedures and instructions (except for exposure to the IV). Controlling Order Effects – In within-subjects designs, participants might improve due to practice or decline due to fatigue. Strategies include: Increasing time between conditions (e.g., testing on different days). Counterbalancing (e.g., splitting participants into two groups, where one does Condition A first and the other does Condition B first).

Answer 40

cues in an experiment that may influence or bias a participant’s response, thereby distorting the results. changes in environment or researcher behaviour) and adjust their responses accordingly. If they realise they are in the experimental group, they may try harder or behave differently. CONTROL: Deception – Providing misleading or false information to hide the true purpose of the experiment. However, this raises ethical concerns about informed consent. Single-Blind Procedure – Participants are unaware of which condition they are in (e.g., using a placebo in drug trials). This reduces bias from expectations. Double-Blind Procedure – Both participants and experimenters are unaware of group assignments, preventing experimenter bias and participant expectations from influencing results.

Answer 41

refers to any influence the experimenter may have on the results of their investigation. Causes of the Experimenter Effect: Personal Characteristics – The experimenter’s age, sex, cultural background, attitudes, and expectations may unintentionally influence participant behaviour. Experimenter Expectancy – The experimenter’s non-verbal cues (e.g., facial expressions, tone of voice, mannerisms) may shape participant responses Unintentional Errors – Mistakes in recording, analysing, or interpreting data can distort results, often unconsciously favouring the researcher’s hypothesis. CONTROL: Single Blind – Participants are unaware of which condition they are in. Double Blind – Both participants and experimenters interacting with them do not know which condition participants are assigned to. . Triple Blind – Participants, experimenters, and data analysts are all unaware of experimental conditions, further reducing potential bias. More Control Measures: - Keeping experimenters unaware of expected results. - Using digital and automated technologies to anonymise data collection and scoring, ensuring consistency and accuracy.

Answer 42

when there is a change in a participant’s behaviour due to their belief that they are receiving some kind of experimental treatment and they respond in accordance with - A placebo is a fake treatment (e.g., a sugar pill or saline injection) that mimics the real treatment. - Simply believing they are receiving treatment can lead to symptom relief or behavioural changes. CONTROL: To control the placebo effect and reduce its impact on the dependent variable (DV), researchers give the control group a placebo, a fake treatment that mimics the actual treatment given to the experimental group. This ensures both groups form similar expectations, allowing researchers

Answer 43

Qualitative data is data that is expressed using language (as opposed to numerically), and often provides insightful information into what is being studied. Quantitative data is data that is expressed numerically. This type of data provides data points that can be statistically compared and analysed.

Answer 44

Objective data is data that is unbiased and is not subject to personal opinion or interpretation. Objective data is often also quantitative Subjective data is data that relies on a researcher’s personal opinion or interpretation. Subjective data is sometimes qualitative

Answer 45

Accuracy How close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity being measured. Precision How closely a set of measurement values agree with each other Systematic errors effect the accuracy of data. Accuracy refers to whether the value measured is the true value of what is being measured. Random errors effect the precision of data. Precision refers to whether the measurement tool provides consistent data.

Answer 46

Internal validity assesses whether the research tools are effectively measuring what they are believed to measure. External validity assesses whether the findings of the study can be applied to the wider population.

Answer 47

Repeatability assesses whether the results of a study are the same when the study is replicated. This includes the same procedure, tools, setting etc, and conducted over a short period of time. Reproducibility assesses whether the results of a study are the same when the research is conducted under different conditions. For example, a different: method of measurement. observer. measuring instrument. location. time.

Answer 48

Beneficence is the consideration of the benefits or gains from research in relation to the risks. Non-maleficence is the idea that any potential harm should be avoided and minimised as much as possible. Integrity is the commitment to search for knowledge, and then honestly report information and findings. Justice is the distribution of fair access to the benefits of research to everyone, ensuring that there is no burden on one group, and ensuring that any opposing claims are considered. Respect is the belief that everyone has value in regards to their welfare and beliefs, and has a right to make their own decisions.

Answer 49

Protecting the privacy of research subjects is an obligation for all those who are involved in the research.

Answer 50

provides participants with a full explanation of the hypothesis being tested, procedures to deceive participants and the reason(s) why it was necessary to deceive them.

Answer 51

participants are given incomplete or misleading information about what to expect during the study activities as it may effect the results if they are given the full research debrief

Outcome 1 Flashcards

(75 cards)