science skills

Question 1

Accuracy

Answer 1

The accuracy of a measurement relates to how close it is to the true value of the quantity being measured

Question 2

Precision

Answer 2

Refers to how closely a set of measurement values agree with each other.

Question 3

Repeatability

Answer 3

The closeness of the agreement between the results of successive measurements of the same quantity being measured, carried out under the same conditions of measurement. These conditions include the same measurement procedure, the same observer

Question 4

Reproducibility

Answer 4

The closeness of the agreement between the results of measurements of the same quantity being measured, carried out under changed conditions of measurement. These different conditions include a different method of measurement, different observer

Question 5

Ethical concepts

Answer 5

• Beneficence: The commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action.
• Integrity: The commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, and the honest reporting of all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding.
• Justice: The moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action; and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action.
• Non-maleficence: Involves avoiding the causations of harm; however, as a position or course of action may involve some degree of harm, the concept of non-maleficence implies that the harm resulting from any position or course of action should not be disproportionate to the benefits from any position or course of action.
• Respect: Involves consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and/or instrumental value; giving due regard to the welfare, liberty and autonomy, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage of both the individual and the collective; consideration of the capacity of living things to make their own decisions; and when living things have diminished capacity to make their own decisions, ensuring that they are empowered where possible and protected as necessary.

Question 6

ethical guidelines

Answer 6

• Confidentiality: The privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity of individual results, including the removal of identifying elements.
• Debriefing: Ensures that, at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions. Any participant questions are addressed, and support is also provided to ensure there is no lasting harm from their involvement in the study. Debriefing is essential for all studies that involve deception.
• Informed consent procedures: Ensure participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks (both physical and psychological), before agreeing to participate in the study. Voluntary written consent should be obtained by the experimenter and if participants are unable to give this consent, then a parent or legal guardian should provide this.
• Use of deception in research: Is only permissible when participants knowing the true purpose of the experiment may affect their behaviour while participating in the study, and the subsequent validity of the experiment. The use of deception is discouraged in psychological research and used only when necessary.
• Voluntary participation: Ensures that there is no coercion of or pressure put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved.
• Withdrawal rights: Involves a participant being able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during or after the conclusion of an experiment, without penalty. This may include the removal of the participant’s results from the study after the study has been completed.

Question 7

validity

Answer 7

Internal validity is about whether the results are caused by the manipulation of the independent variable and not other factors (e.g., bias, poor controls).

External validity is about whether the results can be generalised to other people, settings, or times.

Question 8

Reproducibility vs. Repeatability

Answer 8

Repeatability means the same researcher uses the same method and equipment, with the same participants or conditions, and gets similar results.

Reproducibility means a different researcher or group, possibly in a different location, uses the same method and still gets similar results.

Question 9

what is counterbalancing?

Answer 9

Counterbalancing is a method used in experimental design to control for order effects in repeated measures designs, where the same participants are exposed to multiple conditions.

It involves presenting different groups of participants with the same conditions or treatments in different orders to see if the order affects the results.

Question 10

Writing a Conclusion

Answer 10

A statement about whether the hypothesis was supported

A summary of the key results

A link to the psychological concept being investigated

Question 11

Hypothesis

Answer 11

• population
• IV
• DV
• direction/prediction

Question 12

Confounding variables and extraneous variables

Answer 12

🔹 Extraneous Variables
These are any variables other than the independent variable (IV) that could influence the dependent variable (DV).

They are unwanted but not always problematic—if controlled properly.

Example: In a memory experiment, participant fatigue, noise in the room, or lighting could be extraneous variables.

⚠️ If these are controlled, they don’t ruin the experiment—just potential distractions that need to be managed.

🔸 Confounding Variables
These are a type of extraneous variable that has actually affected the DV and is confused with the IV.

A confounding variable means you can’t tell whether the change in the DV was due to the IV or the confound.

It ruins internal validity.

Question 13

Key Strategies to Control for Extraneous & Confounding Variables

Answer 13

✅ 1. Random Allocation
Each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group.

Helps balance participant variables between groups.

✅ 2. Standardised Procedures
Keep instructions, environment, and timing the same for all participants.

✅ 3. Counterbalancing
Used in repeated measures designs to control order effects.

Half participants do Condition A → B, the other half B → A.

✅ 4. Control Group
A baseline group to compare the experimental group’s results.

Helps identify whether the IV is actually affecting the DV.

✅ 5. Blinding Techniques
Single-blind: Participants don’t know which condition they’re in.

Double-blind: Neither participants nor researchers know group allocations.

Question 14

Participant Variables

Answer 14

Individual differences between participants.

CONTROL!
Use repeated measures or matched participants design.
Random allocation.