Outcome 3 - Learning And Memory

Question 1

Differences between neurotransmitters and neurohormones

Answer 1

Neurotransmitters are chemicals released by the presynaptic neuron and are released directly into the synapse. They can only effect other Neurons if the they are linked via a synapse. Carry messages short distances (from pre to post synaptic neuron) the effect is quick,
Neurohormones are released by a pre synaptic neuron, and directly into the bloodstream. Carey messages throughout the body, often to distant sites (organs) travel further than hormones. The effect that they produce is not as fast as neurotransmitters

Question 2

Synaptic plasticity

Answer 2

Describes the changes that occur to synapse, it can lead to an increase or decrease in activity. It is when the number of receptor sites on the post synaptic neuron changes, and increase or decrease in the amount of neurotransmitter in the per synaptic neuron or other structural changes. This process is involved in LTP and LTD, providing a flexible functioning nervous system . (Learning and memory in the hippocampus)

Question 3

Learning

Answer 3

Relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience

Question 4

Memory

Answer 4

An active information system the receives, organises, stores and recovers information when we need it

Question 5

Simple systems approach

Answer 5

Using simplistic organisms to study the brain, an example of this is kandels experiment using aplysia (sea slugs). Which has simple neural circuits and any behavioural changes as a result of learning can be examined neuron by neurone

Question 6

Kandels experiment

Answer 6

Physiological basis of memory - memory formation of neurons.
Using aplysia which have simple nervous systems and a small number of large and pigmented nerve cells.
By noting the changes in the levels of neurotransmitters released at the synapse he concluded that memory formation depends on neuronal activity. Increase of neurotransmitters = more efficient transmissions = more efficient neural circuits/ LTP

Question 7

Alcohols effect on learning

Answer 7

Disrupts neurotransmitter levels (serotonin) = trouble remembering information

Question 8

Synaptogenisis

Answer 8

Neurons developing new connections and forming new synapses or existing pathways are strengthened.
Info passes from neuron to neuron, if this happens repeatedly learning occurs.
Dendrites and axons project out and link with a target cell or form a synapse.
It also includes the pruning away of unused or unnecessary neurons

Question 9

When does synaptogenesis occur

Answer 9

2 months before birth to 2 years rapidly and in puberty

Throughout a healthy persons lifespan

Question 10

Hebb principals

Answer 10

Use it or loose it

• use of a function increases neural structure while disuse decreases it
• those that fire together are activated together wire together and in doing so form a synapse

Question 11

Cerebellum

Answer 11

Brain structure involved in the memory of learnt skills and actions

Question 12

Enriched vs deprived environments

Answer 12

Enriched environments
- greater synapse development, more dendrites (thicker cortices)
Than rats raised in deprived environments

Question 13

Neural plasticity and in what what ways does it occur

Answer 13

Umbrella term used to describe the ability of the brain and nervous system to adapt to changing conditions, reorganise neural pathways, repair damaged ones or create new pathways.

• modifying the strength or efficiency or effectiveness of synaptic transmissions of excising synaptic connections
• producing growth of new synaptic connections or pruning away of exisiting ones
• modulating the excitability properties of individual neurons.

Question 14

Factors that effect plasticity

Answer 14

Genetic factors
- specific traits and characteristics, encoded in our genes that we inherit from our parents

Environmental factors
- the amount of simulation our nervous system receives

Question 15

Excitatory or inhibitory

Answer 15

Glutamate
- excitatory
GABA
- inhibitory

Depends on the type of neurotransmitter released by the presynaptic neuron and the ion channel receptors on the post synaptic neuron they interact with

Question 16

What is LTP

Answer 16

Long term potentiation
A form of neural plasticity that is dependant on the activity between two neurons. That lead to an increase in the efficacy of synaptic transmission. Long lasting strengthening of two synaptic transmissions between neurons making them more likely to fire when subjected to a smaller amount of energy. Changes to the effectiveness of synaptic transmission

Question 17

Where does LTP take place in the brain

Answer 17

In the temporal lobes, particularly in the hippocampus. (Memory consolidation) in the dendate gyrus.

Question 18

Role of LTP on the post synaptic neuron

Answer 18

Na ions enter cell depolarising the pre synaptic neuron, causing a positive charge which simulates an action potential
This causes ca channels to open, which causes a chain of events causing vesicles to release neurotransmitters across the synapse

Question 19

What are two important receptors involved in LTP and where are they found

Answer 19

On the post synaptic neuron

AMPA and NMDA

Question 20

LTP on post synaptic neuron

Answer 20

Glutamate binds to AMPA receptors
Na ions pass through depolarising the cell
Causing NMDA receptors to be opened ( due to na ions forcing mg ions blocking the NMDA receptors to leave cell)
Ca enters NMDA receptors and binds to kinase (enzyme)
Kinase produces a phosphate group which binds to the AMPA increasing the sensitivity of the cell

At first this process requires a large and intense signal or large release of glutamate, but as learning occurs this can be achieved by a smaller signal or amount of glutamate to simulate post synaptic neuron

Question 21

Hippocampus

Answer 21

Involved in memory consolidation

Individuals with damages hippocampus lose the ability to learn and remember new information

Question 22

LTD

Answer 22

Long term depression
Efficiency between two neurons is reduced
Weaker signal or release of glutamate less ca ions entering, less binding to kinase which results in less AMPA receptors on the post synaptic neuron. Reduced action potential is produced

Involved in forgetting , used to help weaken and prune existing synapses that are not simulated, by removing unused or incessant synapse the brain becomes more efficient, there for so does learning and memory process
Resources are distributed to healthy cells so energy is used more effectively

Occurs in the hippocampus

Question 23

Compare LTP and LTD

Answer 23

Ltp
Synapses are strengthened when AMPA receptors are increased in number and efficiency allowing more calcium to enter the cell increasing the neurons excitatory response
In graded glutamate production and release
Involved in memory and learning as neurons become more efficient in transmitting info
Ltd
Synapses are weakened, AMPA receptors are decreased reducing the amount of calcium entering the cell, weakening the response
Decrease in glutamate production and release at pre synaptic neuron
Involved in memory and learning as neurons become less efficient at transmitting messages and synaptic pruning takes place

Question 24

Neurotransmitter

Answer 24

A chemical messenger synthesised within a presynaptic neuron and is transmitted across a synapse

Question 25

Hormones

Answer 25

Are produced by the endocrine system, produced in the glands and secreted directly into the bloodstream to act on distant sites

Question 26

Neurohormones

Answer 26

A chemicals synthesised in the neuron and are directly secreted into the blood stream

Question 27

Differences between neurohormones and neurotransmitters

Answer 27

Neurotransmitters - chemicals released by pre synaptic neuron directly into a synapse It can only affect neurons that are linked directly via a synapse That messages for pre to post synaptic neuron Travel short distances Effect is quick Neurohormones - chemicals released by ore synaptic neuron and directly into the blood stream Carry messages throughout the body so they can affect target cells in specific organs at distant sites Can travel longer distances than neurotransmitters Effect is not as quick as neurotransmitters

Question 28

Synaptic plasticity

Answer 28

Changes that occur at the synapse which can lead to an increase or decrease in activity between neurons, two or more Changes to receptors Amount of neurotransmitters structural changes Basis of learning and memory allowing for a flexible functioning nervous system. Includes LTP and LTD

Question 29

Role of glutamate

Answer 29

Excitatory neurotransmitter Role in LTP excites neurons in the brain. Involved in neural plasticity and in learning g and memory Acts on certain receptors AMPA receptors and increases the sensitivity of the next neuron making it more likely to fire an action potential Role in LTD are reduced glutamate causes degenerated neurons

Question 30

Role of adrenaline

Answer 30

In the consolidation of emotionally arousing experiences Emotionally arousing experience is perceived by brain. The hypothalamus sends a signal that activates sympathetic nervous system, which activated adrenal glands. Secreted adrenaline and noradrenaline Influences the brains functions by activating adrenorecptors, (receptors in the vagus nerves that run around the brain) which project off the brain stem and are activated by adrenaline. The brain stem then activated the release of noradrenaline that activates the amygdala and produces the emotional content of memories

Question 31

Adrenaline

Answer 31

Also known as epinephrine is a horizons secreted from the adrenal glands that sit on top on the kidneys. It is re,eased directly into the blood stream Increases heart rate,BP, dilates pupils, expands air and lung passageways Main role is to provide energy to muscles when aroused It is both a neurohormone and a neurotransmitter It enhances our attention

Question 32

Stimulus

Answer 32

Any object or event that produces a response

Question 33

Classical conditioning

Answer 33

A form of learning where two normally unrelated stimuli are reappeared linked so that an existing reflex response is elicited by a new stimuli Also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning

Question 34

Three phase model of classic conditioning

Answer 34

First phase - a response to a stimulus that has not yet been conditioned. An innate response UCS = UCR NS causes no response Second phase Development of an association between neutral stimulus and UCS NS become CS Third phase CS produces CR as a result of its association with the UCS The CS consistently producing a CR to a previously NS without it being paired with the stimulus that innately produces the response

Question 35

Pavlov’s research

Answer 35

Experiment with salivation | Simple type of learning that was based on repetitive association of different stimuli, giving us classical conditioning

Question 36

Operant conditioning

Answer 36

A learning process in which the likely hold of a behaviour being repeated is determined by the consequences of that behaviour Instrumental learning ABC conditioning

Question 37

ABC of operant conditioning

Answer 37

A antecedent Is the stimulus that comes before the response in operant conditioning B behaviour Is the response to a stimulus the organism makes because on the antecedent It is voluntary C consequence Follows behaviour and may result in either pleasant or unpleasant circumstances, this influences the likelyhood of the behaviour being repeated

Question 38

Skinners experiment

Answer 38

Is a form of operant conditioning | Skinner box -operant conditioning in animals

Question 39

Reinforcement- operant conditioning

Answer 39

Positive and negative reinforcement Positive When desirable of pleasant event follows a response and strengthened the likelihood of the response reoccurring Negative When an unpleasant stimulus is removed reduced or prevent and creates a positive consequence. Strengthening the likelihood that the response reoccurs

Question 40

Punishment operant conditioning

Answer 40

Is an unpleasant consequence that reduces the likelihood hold of the behaviour reoccurring,because of the introduction of an unpleasant stimulus

Question 41

Response cost

Answer 41

A form of punishment When a reinforcer or positive stare of affairs is removed following a response, something desirable being removed, decreasing the likelihood that the response reoccurs

Question 42

Variables affecting punishment

Answer 42

Timing of the response ( best immediately afterward) Constituency of the response Must be appropriate deterrent

Question 43

Limitations of punishment

Answer 43

As a learning technique it does not indicate what the right response is. Emotional response trauma resentment ect Aggravating factor or frustration

Question 44

Stimulus generalisation

Answer 44

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the stimuli conditioned that proceeds reinforcement

Question 45

Stimulus discrimination

Answer 45

The ability to differentiate between stimuli that may be similar to conditioned stimuli that signal reinforcement and non reinforcement

Question 46

Extinction

Answer 46

When the learnt response gradually decreases in strength or rats of response after reinforcement stops

Question 47

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 47

The recovery of a previously reinforced response after a period of apparent extinction

Question 48

Observational learning

Answer 48

When learning occurs by watching (observing) others and noting the consequences of their actions, then imitating or not their behaviour based on the consequences It is a form of social learning It can happen subconsciously Learning occurs by observing the behaviour of others and the consequences of those behaviours Learning can occur without their being an immediate change in behaviour (latent) Cognition plays a role in observational learning because the learner has expectations of further reinforcements or punishments, influencing if the learnt behaviour will be demonstrated Observational learning is a link between classical and operant conditioning (behaviourist theories) and cognitive learning theory’s.

Question 49

To be successful observational learning

Answer 49

Model must seem to be rewarded for the behaviour displayed, this makes it more likely that the behaviour will be copied than models who are punished Model must be appropriate for the learner (age) Learning can occur in real life in flic or television

Question 50

Elements of observational learning

Answer 50

``` Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation Reinforcement ```

Question 51

Observational learning experiments

Answer 51

Banduras bobo doll experiments Increased behaviour she model is rewarded Decresed when punishes

Question 52

Little Albert experiment

Answer 52

Classical conditioning Conditioned fear emotional respiratory se to white rats with loud noises causing a reflective emotional response in the child Result was generalised to other stimuli ``` Ethical considerations breached Do no harm Withdrawl rights Informed consent Debriefing Confidentiality ```