(P2): Approaches In Psychology (Footnotes)..

Question 1

AP: Topic 1: Introduction to psychology and its origins. Describe what is meant by ‘approaches’ in psychology.

Answer 1

An approach is a perspective (i.e., view) that involves certain assumptions (i.e., beliefs) about human behavior: the way they function, which aspects of them are worthy of study and what research methods are appropriate for undertaking this study.
There may be several different theories within an approach, but they all share these common assumptions.

The five major perspectives in psychology are:
biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive and humanistic.

Question 2

AP: Topic 1: Introduction to psychology and its origins. Explain approaching a defining psychology.

Answer 2

Psychology is a vast subject and so it is not easy to provide a single definition. However, one of the earliest definitions was that psychology was ‘the study of mental experiences and consciousness’. Another view claimed that it was ‘the study of the unconscious mind’. Later on, psychology was called ‘the study of behaviour’, and more recently, ‘the study of the individual’.

For now, we’ll say that psychology is that branch of knowledge concerned with studying human (and some other animal) behaviour and human experiences, or as Atkinson et al. (1999) put it: ‘the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes’. Clearly, a hugerangeand diversity of topics are included within psychology. An understanding of the different areas of psychology will help to make therangeand diversity manageable – for this reason, this topic provides an overview of the subject.

Applying psychology:

Psychologists use a number of different research techniques. which you will learn about as you work through the course. They are discussed in more detail in Study Unit 6. All the techniques, however,aimto produce evidence that is verifiable – that is, other people with the expectation of producing the same results can repeat the studies. If the same results are not obtained, then it should be possible to uncover the source of the difference.

Question 3

AP: Topic 1: Introduction to psychology and its origins. Explain what is meant by ‘interpreting evidence’.

Answer 3

Although the collection of evidence in psychology is very important we don’t want to leave you with the impression that psychology is only about collecting evidence. Evidence on its own has little meaning – the next stage is appropriate interpretation of that evidence.

During your course you will meet some rather fundamental disagreements between psychologists on what a particular study means and how thedatashould be interpreted. This is the point where personal experience can be of assistance to you in psychology. The knowledge that you have acquired in your everyday life may suggest a new interpretation of a past study or new studies that should be carried out.
In studying A level Psychology you will find two major components:

There is a substantial body of psychological knowledge.

Perhaps even more important, there is material about the research techniques that psychologists use. An understanding of these techniques will allow you to begin not only to examine the interpretations of evidence from studies, but also to evaluate the quality of the evidence itself.

Question 4

AP: Topic 1: Introduction to psychology and its origins. Explain Pure versus applied research.

Answer 4

Psychology, perhaps in some unexpected ways, may affect your behaviour. However, rather than being able to supply all answers, what you will derive from psychology is the ability to ask questions about behaviour.

Real-life problems: In answer to the second point made above, some psychology focuses on real-life problems and some does not.
> There are two useful distinctions that can be made.

Pure versus applied research:

The first is between pure and applied research.

Applied:
The starting point for applied research is usually a practical problem and theaimis to provide an answer, both by conducting new studies and by drawing on pre-existing understanding, which relates to the problem area. Fundamental or pure research is, on the other hand, undertaken for its own sake, regardless of whether or not the knowledge can be applied. For example, one might want to know if very young infants show a preference for looking at pictures of human faces rather than at complex patterns. Sometimes this kind of research can appear rather remote from everyday experience.

Pure:
Pure research, however, always has a problem or interesting question about human behaviour as its starting point, although sometimes the question can be difficult to spot. Faces are a very important part of our environment; questions about how we recognise familiar faces and how this ability develops could lead to the study on young infants described above. At the root of most research in psychology are real-life problems or at least questions about recognisable real-life phenomena.

Question 5

AP: Topic 1: Introduction to psychology and its origins. Explain Person versus process approaches.

Answer 5

The second important distinction is between person and process approaches within psychology (Legge, 1975).

Process:
The process approach is likely to appear less ‘relevant’. Psychologists who take this approach focus on processes such as memory, reasoning or learning. They usually study such processes separately and in the simplest form to which they can be reduced. Some of the research, if viewed out of context, can appear distinctly strange.

‘I know it’s difficult to write your name with your foot while reciting the alphabet backwards, but I would like you to try!’

Person:
By contrast, the person approach focuses on the whole person and usually involves studying people performing behaviours that are recognisably human and ‘relevant’. Research on bystander apathy mentioned earlier falls into the person category.

+ Each approach has its advantages and drawbacks; ideally, they should be complementary to each other. It is important to note that the person/process distinction is independent of the pure/applied distinction. Both pure and applied research can make use of either approach.

Question 6

AP: Topic 1: Introduction to psychology and its origins. Explain the origins of psychology,including the work of Wilhelm Wundt and his approach. (+A03).

Answer 6

1. Psychology has existed as a distinct area of study since around 1875 when Wundt, a German physician, established the first laboratory to study the human mind.

Wundt’s approach:
Wundt set up his laboratory in the University of Leipzig in 1875. > His approach to studying the human mind was to focus on aspects of the mind that could be observed and measured in controlled conditions. > Wundt used (key term*) introspection - which is to study the functions of the mind by asking people to describe their own thoughts, feelings and experiences. Also know as the examination of ones own thought processes.

+ In Wundt’s time, the fashionable answer to the mind–body problem was that while mental experiences and physical events occur simultaneously, they do not interact or influence each other. Such a position legitimised the study of mental experiences in their own right. While the premise on which Wundt based his work is no longer accepted, psychology has still not found a way to characterise the relationship between mental experiences and physical events.

Question 7

AP: Topic 1: Introduction to psychology and its origins. Explain the early influence of Empiricism. (+A03).

Answer 7

Empiricism:

Psychology also inherited the doctrine of empiricism from philosophy. This idea was first put forward by Locke, a philosopher who wrote in the eighteenth century. The basic notion of empiricism is that people are born with minds like blank sheets of paper; no knowledge is innate. According to this doctrine, all knowledge comes from information acquired through the senses and reflections on this information. Thus, new knowledge can only be acquired empirically or ‘through the senses’.

To the early psychologists, observations of private mental experiences obtained through introspection constituted perfectly respectable empirical evidence.

Unfortunately, because such observations are subjective, disagreements between observers cannot be resolved.

Question 8

AP: Topic 1: Introduction to psychology and its origins. Explain the emergence of the three main ^methods used in psychology.

Answer 8

The three main methods:

1. Behaviourist: This brought controlled, scientific research into psychology. These methods, such as laboratory experiments, are still widely used today. Don’t get confused between Behaviourst Method and the learning approach^: Behaviorism doesn’t study or feature internal thought processes as an element of actions. Social learning argues that behavior is much more complicated than the simple stimulus and response of behaviorism. It suggests that students learn through observation, and then they consciously decide to imitate behavior.
2. Cognitive: This developed as a way to quantify and study the internal processes of the mind by testing hypotheses in laboratories under controlled conditions. Here the focus is on focus on the influence of our thought processes on our behaviour.
3. Biological: The later development of the biological approach has seen further developments in methodology, such as the use of brain scans. Such developments add even more scientific methodology to the study of psychology.

Question 9

AP: Topic 1: Introduction to psychology and its origins. Explain the argument that psychology has emerged as a science.

Answer 9

Psychology as a science:

Wundt was the first person to suggest that the mind could be studied empirically using experiments. However the concept of using introspection to gather data was criticised by researchers such as John B. Watson for being very subjective.

• Watson began the behaviourist movement, studying observable stimulus-response behaviour in the early 20th century after speaking Columbia University - which signalled the beginning of psychology as a science*. His approach attempted to be more objective than Wundt’s Research and Theory.

Question 10

AP: Topic 1: Introduction to psychology and its origins. Give a brief timeline report of the important developments in psychology.

Answer 10

1. 1879: Wundt opens the first institute.
2. Early 1900s: Freud publishes work on dream analysis.
3. Early 1910s+ Behaviourism develops, studying stimulus-response learning.
4. 1950s: Humanism develops stiding ‘the self’.
5. 1960s-1970s: Cognitive psychology develops, studying internal mental processes.
6. 1960s: Social learning theory develops as a ‘newer’ behaviourist approach.
7. Later 20th century: The rise of the biological approach/ research conducted related to human behaviour.

+ The understanding of these three approaches is required for the AS examination and we’ll look at them in more detail later in this section. You need to be able to compare these different approaches in terms of the basic assumptions of each. Keep this fairly simple and by the end of the section see if you can list the differences between each approach.
There are two more approaches needed for the full A level:

the psychodynamic approachlooks at childhood experiences and says that maybe an early event has resulted in a defence mechanism later in life.

the humanistic approachwhich values the individual and has respect for individuality and tries not to reduce people’s behaviour down to general laws.

Question 11

AP: Topic 1: Introduction to psychology and its origins. Give a
A briefly summary of this topics and its outlines into studying Psychology

Answer 11

Brief summary:

What exactly is psychology? Why is it considered a science? What does studying psychology involve? This topic explores some of these important questions, starting with an attempt to answer the basic question of what psychology actually is.

Although psychology is a relatively young discipline, it is easier to understand its current concerns if they are viewed in a historical context. Therefore this topic also explores emergence ofpsychology as a scienceand the origins of some of the current theoretical approaches as well as introducing the different approaches used in psychology.

In this topic you have explored what psychology is and its relevance to everyday life. You have looked briefly at Wundt and the emergence ofpsychology as a sciencealong with the terms introspection and empiricism.

Objectives for Topic: Now that you have completed your work on this topic you should be able to:

explain what psychology is

recognise how psychology can be applied to understanding people’s behaviour.

Specifically for the exam, you need to be able to:

describe the theory proposed by Wundt

explain the use of introspection

describe how psychology developed into a science out of the domain of philosophy.

Question 12

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches. Give a brief overview of the basic assumptions of these two approaches.

Answer 12

Learning:
Included in the learning approaches is the behaviourist approach which involves understanding the work of Pavlov and B. F. Skinner. We then move on to social learning theory and the work of Bandura.

Cognitive:
Underpinning the cognitive approach is the belief that we must refer to thought processes to understand behaviour. We look at the classic example of the experiment by D.J. Simons & C.F. Chabris and the contribution of cognitive psychology to the emergence of cognitive neuroscience.

> Exam hint: The basic assumptions of both the learning and cognitive approaches are needed for both the AS and A level examinations.

Question 13

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt1 - The learning approach. Explain the lasting approach and the introductory
Of behaviourism.

Answer 13

The ‘learning approaches’ is a term for a number of theories which are based on the assumption that our behaviour is learned through interaction with our environment.

We will first look at what is meant by behaviourism and then explore:

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Social learning theory.

Introducing behaviourism:
The behaviourism movement in psychology is associated with the work of J B Watson, who argued for the development of a psychology without introspection. He believed that psychology could only become truly objective if it limited itself to the study of behaviour (which is public) as opposed to conscious experience (which is private).

Behaviourism, therefore, threw out ‘the baby’ of mental experiences with ‘the bathwater’ of introspection. It is only relatively recently that psychology has begun again to examine mental processes, but using methods, which are very different from introspection. This is known as Cognitive Psychology and later in this topic we will explore the methods used for examining the mental processes involved in memory.

The influence of biology on early psychology was also considerable. By the time Wundt established his laboratory in 1879, great advances had been made in understanding the nervous system, in linking the production and comprehension of language to specific areas of the brain and in measuring the speed of nervous conduction.

Question 14

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches. Pt1 - The learning approach. Explain Darwin’s contribution to this approach. (+A03).

Answer 14

Darwin’s contribution:

All of these advances in knowledge helped to inform and direct psychology in its early years. Perhaps more important though was the influence of Darwin’s evolutionary theory. For the first time, a degree of continuity between man and other animals was suggested. It seemed possible therefore to investigate fundamental processes such as learning in other species and to generalise the knowledge back to man.

The early behaviourists chose to use animals, such as rats and pigeons, for their investigations because they expected important aspects of human behaviour to be present in a simpler form in other animals. Further, Darwin brought to attention the variation of characteristics within species and so gave impetus to the study of individual differences in humans.

Question 15

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches. Pt1 - The learning approach. Outline the basic assumptions of Behaviourism.

Answer 15

The basic assumptions of behaviourism:

The behaviourist approach has at its roots four main assumptions, which are as follows:

Behaviour is learned from experience.

Only observable behaviour is measured.

Non-human animals are valid subjects of study since they share the same principles of learning.

We are born a blank slate and so there is no influence of genetics on our behaviour. (Emprism).

Question 16

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 1 - The learning approach. Outline Classical conditioning and Pavlov’s contribution.

Answer 16

Classical conditioning: learning by association(AO1)

Classical conditioningis learning through association and was first demonstrated byIvan Pavlov. Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time that they were given food.
First the dogs were presented with the food, they salivated. The food was theunconditioned stimulusand salivation was anunconditioned(innate)response.

ThenPavlovsounded the bell (neutral stimulus) before giving the food. After a fewpairingsthe dogs salivated when they heard the bell even when no food was given. The bell had become theconditioned stimulusand salivation had become theconditioned response.
The dogs had learnt toassociatethe bell with the food and the sound of the bell and salivation was triggered by the sound of the bell.

In summary: Classical conditioning = Association with an involuntary response and a stimulus.

Question 17

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 1 - The learning approach. Evaluate Classical conditioning and the use of additional findings (+A03/A02).

Answer 17

Evaluation of main strengths:
> Most research is done in laboratories and is therefore reliable due to the high level of control possible.
> Classical conditioning has been used in developing treatments for mental illness such as systematic desensitisation to treat phobias, which has been found to be very effective.

Evaluation of main weaknesses:
> Classical conditioning ignores the role of biology in behaviour. Instead, it suggests everything stems from stimulus-response learning.
> Classical conditioning does not account for the role of cognition/ thought in behaviour as this is not observable.

Additional findings:
~ Stimulus response generalisation: Pavlov found that other stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (e.g. bells of different pitch and tone) will also lead to the conditioned response even though they have never been directly associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
~ Stimulus discrimination: If many different neutral stimuli are experienced, but only one is reliably paired with the unconditioned stimulus - there can be stimulus discrimination whereby only one specific stimulus will become the conditioned stimlus.
~ Temporal contiguity: The unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus have to be paired together at or around the same for the association to be created.

Question 18

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 1 - The learning approach. Outline the difference between Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning.

Answer 18

Operant conditioning is another theory of learning developed within the behaviourist approach. It is very different from classical conditioning and, be warned, they are easy to get muddled up. This theory does not start with a stimulus response that already exists Instead it works on the assumption that animals try out different pieces of behaviour and it is the response to that behaviour that dictates whether an animal will repeat the behaviour. If you remember to apply the phrase ‘trial and error learning’ to operant conditioning you should be able to keep classical and operant conditioning separate.

Question 19

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 1 - The learning approach. Outline Operant conditioning.

Answer 19

Skinnerargued that learning is anactiveprocess. When humans and animals act on and in their environmentconsequencesfollow these behaviors. If the consequences are pleasant they repeat the behavior but if the consequences are unpleasant they do not repeat the behavior.

Positive reinforcement: is receiving a reward.

Negative reinforcement: occurs when performing an action stops something unpleasant happening. For example in one of Skinner’s experiment a rat had to press a lever to stop receiving an electric shock.

Punishment: this is an unpleasant consequence. For example being grounded for not doing your psychology homework.

The Skinner Box (1953)(AO1)

A hungry rat was placed in a cage. Every time he activated the lever a food pellet fell in the food dispenser (positive reinforcement). The rats quickly learnt to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box
- This suggests that positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.

In another experiment, a rat was placed in a cage in which they were subjected to an uncomfortable electrical current (see diagram above) as he moved around the cage the rat hit the lever, this immediately switched off the electrical current (negative reinforcement). The rats quickly learnt to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box.
- This suggests that negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.

In summary: Operant conditioning = association with a voluntary behaviour and a consequence.

The key point is that positive and negative reinforcement are likely to result in the behaviour being repeated whereas punishment is likely to result in no repetition of the behaviour. Behaviour is essentially shaped and maintained by its consequences.

Question 20

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 1 - The learning approach. Outline The Law Effect proposed by Thorndike, and the research of Skinner.

Answer 20

Law of effect:

The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that:

“responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation (Gray, 2011, p. 108–109).”

Whereas classical conditioning depends on developing associations between events, operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of our behavior.

Skinner wasn’t the first psychologist to study learning by consequences. Indeed, Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning is built on the ideas of Edward Thorndike.

Thorndike studied learning in animals (usually cats). He devised a classic experiment in which he used a puzzle box (see fig. 1) to empirically test the laws of learning.

Thelaw of effectstated that those behavioral responses that were most closely followed by a satisfying result were most likely to become established patterns and to occur again in response to the same stimulus. Thelaw of exercise stated that behaviour is more strongly established through frequent connections of stimulus and response. In 1932 Thorndike determined that the second of his laws was not entirely valid in all cases.

Skinner’s research:

Skinner found rats could be trained to repeat or avoid behaviours by adapting the Consequences of their actions to different stimuli such as buzzes, food and lights.

The work of Skinner was rooted in a view that classical conditioning was far too simplistic to be a complete explanation of complex human behavior. He believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.

Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based onThorndike’s (1898) law of effect. According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a ‘Skinner Box’ which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.

A Skinner box, also known as an operant conditioning chamber, is a device used to objectively record an animal’s behavior in a compressed time frame. An animal can be rewarded or punished for engaging in certain behaviors, such as lever pressing (for rats) or key pecking (for pigeons).

Question 21

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 1 - The learning approach. Outline The three types of responses described
Skinner’s research and reinforcements.

Answer 21

Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior:

• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

Positive Reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement is a term described by B. F. Skinner in his theory of operant conditioning. Inpositive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by rewards, leading to the repetition of desired behavior. The reward is a reinforcing stimulus.

The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.
Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding.

For example, if your teacher gives you £5 each time you complete your homework (i.e., a reward) you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.

Negative Reinforcement:

Negative reinforcementis the termination of an unpleasant state following a response. This is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience.

For example, if you do not complete your homework, you give your teacher £5. You will complete your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.

Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so the electric current would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.

Question 22

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 1 - The learning approach. Outline the types of punishment and the schedules of reinforcement.

Answer 22

Types of punishment:

Punishment(weakens behavior)

Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable behavior.

Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.

There are many problems with using punishment, such as:

Punished behavior is not forgotten, it’s suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no longer present.

Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems.

Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.

Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment only tells you what not to do.

Schedules of reinforcement:

Behaviorists discovered that different patterns(or schedules) of reinforcementhad different effects on the speed of learning and extinction. Ferster and Skinner (1957) devised different ways of delivering reinforcement and found that this had effects on:

1. The Response Rate- The rate at which the rat pressed the lever (i.e., how hard the rat worked).
2. The Extinction Rate- The rate at which lever pressing dies out (i.e., how soon the rat gave up).

Skinner found that the type of reinforcement which produces the slowest rate of extinction (i.e., people will go on repeating the behavior for the longest time without reinforcement) is variable-ratio reinforcement.
The type of reinforcement which has the quickest rate of extinction is continuous reinforcement. Types of reinforcement:

(A) Continuous Reinforcement

An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behavior occurs, e.g., every time a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered, and then food delivery is shut off.

Response rate is SLOW

Extinction rate is FAST

(B) Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified number of times. e.g., one reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses, e.g., after every 5th response. For example, a child receives a star for every five words spelled correctly.

Response rate is FAST

Extinction rate is MEDIUM

(C) Fixed Interval Reinforcement

One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has been made. An example is being paid by the hour. Another example would be every 15 minutes (half hour, hour, etc.) a pellet is delivered (providing at least one lever press has been made) then food delivery is shut off.

Response rate is MEDIUM

Extinction rate is MEDIUM

(D) Variable Ratio Reinforcement

behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times. For examples gambling or fishing.

Response rate is FAST

Extinction rate is SLOW (very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability)

(E) Variable Interval Reinforcement

Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, e.g., on average every 5 minutes. An example is a self-employed person being paid at unpredictable times.

Response rate is FAST

Extinction rate is SLOW

Question 23

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive learning approaches. Evaluate operant conditioning.

Answer 23

Summary of strengths:

> Evidence suggests that oprent conditioning is an effective way for both humans and animals to learn. For example, schools use operant conditioning to shape student behaviour through rewards and punishments (Educational application).

> Token economies: a form of therapy based on opting conditioning, have been shown to be effective for treating many different problematic behaviours, such as reducing aggressive behaviour in prisoners.

> A further important contribution made by Skinner (1951) is the notion of behavior shaping through successive approximation. Skinner argues that the principles of operant conditioning can be used to produce extremely complex behavior if rewards and punishments are delivered in such a way as to encourage move an organism closer and closer to the desired behavior each time.

Summary of weaknesses:

> The use of animal research in operant conditioning studies also raises the issue of extrapolation. Somepsychologistsargue we cannot generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy and physiology is different from humans, and they cannot think about their experiences and invoke reason, patience, memory or self-comfort.

> operant conditioning fails to take into account the role of inherited andcognitive factorsin learning, and thus is an incomplete explanation of the learning process in humans and animals.

Question 24

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 1 - The learning approach. Outline social learning theory.

Answer 24

Social learning theory (SLT)

SLT theorists acknowledge that learning does take place through operant and classical conditioning but argue that this only explains a limited amount of learning. However SLT differs from the conditioning processes described so far in that it also takes account of the animal’s thoughts, whereas behaviourists do not take any account of this.

It emphasises that animals also learn indirectly by observing and imitating the behaviour of others. It relies on the process of imitation, i.e. learning through copying the behaviour of some one else. So SLT is not strictly a behaviourist approach.

Question 25

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 1 - The learning approach. Outline social learning theory’s key principles/ concepts.

Answer 25

The key concepts of SLT

Some key concepts of SLT that you need to be familiar with are listed below:
Imitationis the term used to describe a person’s copying of the behaviour of a role model.
Identificationis used to describe how a person is influenced by the behaviour of a person that they admire which goes beyond simple copying.
Modellingis a term used to describe how a person copies the behaviour of an influential person, called a model.
Vicarious reinforcementis an important aspect of reinforcement. In this instance the people themselves do not receive the reward but observe some one else receiving it. When they observe the consequence of someone else’s behaviour, as a reward they repeat this behaviour themselves.

The role of mediating processes

We do not necessarily copy someone’s behaviour automatically. SLT involves the role of thought in the process. Behaviour is noticed by others (attention) and remembered (retention). Then, if there is a reward (motivation) the behaviour may be copied later (reproduction). The four mediational processes documented by Bandura:

1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Reproduction
4. Motivation.

Question 26

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 1 - The learning approach. Describe Bandura’s contribution to Social learning theory and outline his research. ( + A02/ A03).

Answer 26

Bandura’s contribution:

During the 1960s, Bandurs conducted research on the transmission of human behaviour through observation, I.e. copying what we see others do. His work was an extension of behaviourist theories because he accepted the role of learning in behaviours, but was also interested in how cognitive processes were involved.

Research:

During the 1960s, Albert Bandura conducted a series of experiments onobservational learning, collectively known as the Bobo doll experiments.
Two of the experiments are described below:

Aim

Bandura(1961) conducted acontrolled experimentstudy to investigate if social behaviors (i.e., aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation.

Play Video

Bobo Doll Experiment

Sample:

Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1961) tested 36 boys and 36 girls from the Stanford University Nursery School aged between 3 to 6 years old.

The researchers pre-tested the children for how aggressive they were by observing the children in the nursery and judged their aggressive behavior on four 5-point rating scales.

It was then possible to match the children in each group so that they had similar levels of aggression in their everyday behavior. The experiment is, therefore, an example of amatched pairs design.
To test theinter-rater reliabilityof the observers, 51 of the children were rated by two observers independently and their ratings compared. These ratings showed a very high reliability correlation (r = 0.89), which suggested that the observers had a good agreement about the behavior of the children.

Method:
Alab experimentwas used, in which the independent variable (the type of model) was manipulated in three conditions:

Aggressive model is shown to 24 children

Non-aggressive model is shown to 24 children

No model shown (control condition) - 24 children

Stage 1: Modeling:

In the experimental conditions children were individually shown into a room containing toys and played with some potato prints and pictures in a corner for 10 minutes while either:

24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) watched a male or female model behaving aggressively towards a toy called a ‘Bobo doll’. The adults attacked the Bobo doll in a distinctive manner - they used a hammer in some cases, and in others threw the doll in the air and shouted “Pow, Boom.”

Another 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were exposed to a non-aggressive model who played in a quiet and subdued manner for 10 minutes (playing with a tinker toy set and ignoring the bobo-doll).

The final 24 children (12 boys and 12 girls) were used as a control group and not exposed to any model at all.

Stage 2: Aggression Arousal:

All the children (including the control group) were subjected to ‘mild aggression arousal.’ Each child was (separately) taken to a room with relatively attractive toys.
As soon as the child started to play with the toys, the experimenter told the child that these were the experimenter’s very best toys and she had decided to reserve them for the other children.

Stage 3: Test for Delayed Imitation:

• The next room contained some aggressive toys and some non-aggressive toys. The non-aggressive toys included a tea set, crayons, three bears and plastic farm animals. The aggressive toys included a mallet and peg board, dart guns, and a 3 foot Bobo doll.
• The child was in the room for 20 minutes, and their behavior was observed and rated though a one-way mirror. Observations were made at 5-second intervals, therefore, giving 240 response units for each child.
• Other behaviors that didn’t imitate that of the model were also recorded e.g., punching the Bobo doll on the nose.

Results:

• Children who observed the aggressive model made far more imitative aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups.
• There was more partial and non-imitative aggression among those children who had observed aggressive behavior, although the difference for non-imitative aggression was small.
• The girls in the aggressive model condition also showed more physical aggressive responses if the model was male, but more verbal aggressive responses if the model was female. However, the exception to this general pattern was the observation of how often they punched Bobo, and in this case the effects of gender were reversed.
• Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex models than girls. The evidence for girls imitating same-sex models is not strong.
• Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls. There was little difference in the verbal aggression between boys and girls.

Conclusion

Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children are able to learn social behavior such as aggression through the process of observation learning, through watching the behavior of another person. The findings supportBandura’s (1977) Social Learning Theory.

This study has important implications for the effects of media violence on children.

Question 27

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 1 - The learning approach. Evaluate the Social learning theory approach. ( +A03).

Answer 27

Overview:

Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behavior.

The explanation makes contextual sense as - If we see the behaviour of other people being reinforced - vicarious reinforcement - then we are influenced to imitate the behaviour: we pay attention to role models and learn from their behaviour because these are the people we identify with the most.

Summary of main strengths:

> The social learning approach takes thought processes into account and acknowledges the role that they play in deciding if a behavior is to be imitated or not. As such, SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognizing the role of mediational processes.

> SLT accepts that cognitive processes are involved in learing and it is not just an automatic process.

> There is a great deal of research evidence supporting the claim that we learn from the observation of others, for example, Bandura’s Bobo doll studies from the 1960s.

> SLT can have useful applications. For example, social skills training - aims to modelosative behaviour to reduce criminal behaviour.

> Social Learning Theory is able to explain many more complex social behaviors (such asgender rolesand moral behavior) than models of learning based onsimple reinforcement.

Summary of main weaknesses:

> SLT, as Behaviourism, tends to ignore the role of biological factors and further cognitive processes in shaping behaviour.

> SLT has been used to argue that violent media can increase violent behaviour, especially in children. However, some people argue that aggressive people are drawn to violent media as an outlet for their impulses.

> Much of the evidence to support SLT comes from laboratory studies. Therefore it may explain behaviour in controlled settings but may not relate to real-life behaviour in the same way.

Question 28

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 2 - The cognitive approach. Describe the cognitive approach and outline its basic assumptions.

Answer 28

Cognitive psychology/ approach is the scientific study of the mind as an information processor. It concerns the way we take in information from the outside world, how we make sense of that information.

Cognitive psychologists try to build up cognitive models of the information processing that goes on inside people’s minds, including perception, attention, language, memory, thinking, and consciousness.

The cognitive approach assumes:

The mind actively processes information from our senses (touch, taste etc.).

Between stimulus and response are complex mental processes, which can be studied scientifically.

Humans can be seen as data processing systems.

The workings of a computer and the human mind are alike – they encode and store information, and they have outputs.

Question 29

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 2 - The cognitive approach. Outline the role of Schema as described in the Cognitive approach.

Answer 29

The role of Schema

A key concept to the approach is the schema, an internal ‘script’ for how to act or what to expect from a given situation. For example, gender schemas assume how males/females behave and how is best to respond accordingly, e.g. a child may assume that all boys enjoy playing football. Schemas are like stereotypes, and alter mental processing of incoming information; their role in eyewitness testimony can be negative, as what somebody expects to see may distort their memory of was actually witnessed.

Question 30

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 2 - The cognitive approach. Outline the Information processing argument.

Answer 30

Humans are information processors:

Information processing in humans resembles that in computers, and is based on based on transforming information, storing information and retrieving information from memory.

Information processing models of cognitive processes such as memory and attention assume that mental processes follow a clear sequence.
For example:

Input processes are concerned with the analysis of the stimuli.

Storage processes cover everything that happens to stimuli internally in the brain and can include coding and manipulation of the stimuli.

Output processes are responsible for preparing an appropriate response to a stimulus.

Information Processing:

The cognitive approach began to revolutionize psychology in the late 1950sand early 1960’s, to become the dominant approach (i.e., perspective) in psychology by the late 1970s. Interest in mental processes had been gradually restored through the work ofPiagetandTolman.

Tolman was a ‘soft behaviorist’. His book Purposive Behavior in Animals and Man in 1932 described research which behaviorism found difficult to explain. The behaviorists’ view had been that learning took place as a result of associations between stimuli and responses.
However, Tolman suggested that learning was based on the relationships which formed amongst stimuli. He referred to these relationships as cognitive maps.

The information processing approach is based on a number of assumptions, including:

Information made available from the environment is processed by a series of processing systems (e.g., attention, perception, short-term memory);

These processing systems transform, or alter the information in systematic ways;

The aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that underlie cognitive performance;

Information processing in humans resembles that in computers.

Question 31

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 2 - The cognitive approach. Outline the use of Theoretical and computer models.

Answer 31

The Study of Internal Mental Processes:

Using experimental research methods, the cognitive approach studies internal mental processes such as attention, memory and decision-making.

For example, an investigation might compare the abilities of groups to memorize a list of words, presenting them either verbally or visually toinferwhich type of sensory information is easiest to process, and could further investigate whether or not this changes with different word types or individuals.

Theoretical and computer modelsare proposed to attempt to explain and infer information about mental processes.

For example, theInformation-Processing Model(Figure 1) describes the mind as if a computer, in terms of the relationship between incoming information to be encoded (from the senses), manipulating this mentally (e.g. storage, a decision), and consequently directing an output (e.g. a behaviour, emotion). An example might be an artist looking at a picturesque landscape, deciding which paint colour suits a given area, before brushing the selected colour onto a canvas.

In recent decades, newer models includingComputationalandConnectionistmodels have taken some attention away from the previously dominant information-processing analogy:

TheComputationalmodelsimilarly compares with a computer, but focuses more on how we structure the process of reaching the behavioural output (i.e. the aim, strategy and action taken), without specifying when/how much information is dealt with.

The computer model representation of mental processing format works through:

Is the 1. The Input > Transferred in Sensory information > 2. The Processing > Transferred in sequence of mental operations > 3. The Output > Transferred in perceptions/ memories/ behaviours.

• Taking in information, processing it and then producing some form of output. For example, we touch something hot, process that it’s hot and then move our hand away.

Question 32

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 2 - The cognitive approach. Outline the use of cognitive neuroscience.

Answer 32

Cognitive Neuroscience:

This refers to the study of how brain structures and biology affect mental processes. Specific brain areas have been found to be associated with particular actions, moods and emotions, which has been tested through brain-scanning techniques.

For example, an area of the frontal lobe (Broca’s Area) has been linked with speech production. Specific areas of the brain are active when dealing with different types of memory, and areas such as the parahippocampal gyrus are linked with OCD. This suggests that aspects of people’s though processes have a physical basis.

• The use of brain scanning techniques such as PET or FMRI scans means it is now possible to see the function of the brain while different behaviours are being performed. For example again, with episodic memories and procedural memories in different areas of the brain activation in recall.

Question 33

AP: Topic 2: Learning and cognitive approaches: Pt 2 - The cognitive approach. Evaluate the use of cognitive neuroscience and the Cognitive approach. (+A03).

Answer 33

Summary of main strengths:

> The cognitive approach uses controlled, rigorous scientific procedures, enhancing the credibility of the theories.

> Cognitive psychology has influenced and integrated with many other approaches and areas of study to produce, for example,social learning theory, cognitive neuropsychology and artificial intelligence (AI).

> Another strength is that the research conducted in this area of psychology very often has applications in the real world.

> Another strength is that the research conducted in this area of psychology very often has applications in the real world.

> For example,cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)has been very effective for treating depression (Hollon & Beck, 1994), and moderately effective for anxiety problems (Beck, 1993). The basis of CBT is to change the way the persons processes their thoughts to make them more rational or positive.

Summary of main weaknesses:

> Cognitive approaches have been criticised for reducing human personality and behaviour to the level of a computer, neglecting the role of emotion on actions. This is known as machine reductionism, and is a problem was it does not recognise how much more complex humans are than machines.

> Many concepts in this approach are hard to test, as it considers internal mental processes, which cannot be directly measured. This means it is hard to know how accurate the explanations actually are.

> B.F. Skinnercriticizes the cognitive approach as he believes that only external stimulus-response behavior should be studied as this can be scientifically measured.

> Therefore, mediation processes (between stimulus and response) do not exist as they cannot be seen and measured. Skinner continues to find problems with cognitive research methods, namely introspection (as used byWilhelm Wundt) due to its subjective and unscientific nature.

Objectives For topic:

describe the basic assumptions of the learning approach

describe the process of classical conditioning including the work of Pavlov

describe the process of operant conditioning including the work of Skinner

explain the different types of reinforcement

describe the process of social learning including the work of Bandura

explain the role of imitation, Identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement and meditational processes

Pt2:

describe the basic assumptions of the cognitive approach

understand the need to study internal mental processes

describe the role of schema

explain how theoretical and computer models are used to make inferences about mental processes

describe how cognitive neuroscience has emerged out of the cognitive approach.

Question 34

AP: Topic 3: The biological approach and biopsychology. Outline the biological approach and its main assumptions.

Answer 34

Biological psychology, also called physiological psychology, is the study of the biology of behavior; it focuses on the nervous system, hormones and genetics. Biological psychology examines therelationship between mind and body, neural mechanisms, and the influence of heredity on behavior.

The biological approach believes behavior to be as a consequence of our genetics and physiology. It is the only approach in psychology that examines thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from a biological and thus physical point of view.

Therefore, all that is psychological is first physiological. All thoughts, feeling & behavior ultimately have a biological cause.

The biological approach sees behaviour as rooted in the physiology and biology of the body and, as with the other approaches, it has its own basic assumptions, as follows:

The genes which a person possesses influences their behaviour. This means that behaviour evolves in the same way as physical characteristics.

The brain is the main focus, since this is the origin of how the world is seen and acted upon.

Neurotransmitters and hormones are responsible for the body’s chemical processes and are related to a person’s behaviour because they influence their response to the environment.

Question 35

AP: Topic 3: The biological approach and biopsychology. Outline the biological approaches explanation for the influences of
genes on behaviour and the genetic basis of behaviour.

Answer 35

The influence of genes on behaviour

A person’s genotype is their genetic make-up, inherited at conception, which carries the information about their characteristics and is unique to every individual, unless they are one of a pair of identical twins. The phenotype on the other hand describes the actual characteristics which are expressed when the genotype interacts with the environment.
For example, one might inherit genes for being tall but can only achieve that height if they are provided with the right amount of nutrition.

Genetic basis of behaviour:

Work carried out on twins has highlighted the role of genes versus the environment in producing certain behaviours. There are two very distinct types of twins.

Identical (termed monozygotic because they were produced by one zygote which divided early in development).

Non-identical (termed dizygotic because they were produced by two egg cells and two sperms creating two individual zygotes).

If monozygotic twins show a more similar set of behaviours than dizygotic twins then there is a high likelihood that there is a significant genetic component to that behaviour. To express this similarity we use a statistic called ‘concordance rate’. A concordance of 100% means that the twins have the same behaviour.

The concordance rate is not 100% even for identical twins. This shows that there is also an environmental component

Question 36

AP: Topic 3: The biological approach and biopsychology. Outline the biological approaches explanation of evoloutary behaviour and the nature nurture debate contribution.

Answer 36

Evolution and behaviour:

Evolution operates through mutations in the genetic code resulting in characteristics that impose a survival factor on the individual. If the characteristic is advantageous the individual is more likely to survive, breed and successfully raise offspring. If these offspring have inherited the advantageous form of the genes then they again are more likely to survive and so on.

Biological psychologists suggest behaviour can be inherited in the same way as that of physical characteristics.

Take the example of aggression. An animal that displays aggression increases its survival rate by increasing its access to resources such as food and mates. In defending a territory it acquires for itself a place to gain food and to raise its young safely. Displays of aggression will also attract a mate and give it a firm place high up in the hierarchy. If the features that make the animal aggressive are genetic they will be inherited and the aggressive behaviour will be passed on down the generations.

• Note the very different explanation given here from the learning approach, which said that animals are born a ‘blank slate’ and that behaviour is learnt through observation and copying or through trial and error.

There is now evidence of a gene for aggression and the expression of this via the chemical monoamine oxidase A.

Charles Darwin’s publication – On the Origin of Species (1859) – described the process ofnatural selection; characteristics that are not suited to a species’ environment will die out as it struggles to survive, and with time willevolveover generations so that onlyadaptivecharacteristics remain in future offspring.

Genesare the genetic information carried byDNAinchromosomes, found within a cell’s nucleus; they are passed on through generations of a species if individuals survive and successfully reproduce. In line with Darwin’s theory of evolution, it might also follow that genes form a basis of behaviour, as both behaviour and genes appear to beheritable. An example might be aggressive behaviour, in light of obvious survival benefits such as warding off predators and competing for resources.

Nature-nurture debate:

Thegenotypedescribes the genetic configuration of an individual, whereasphenotypedescribes thecombinedeffects of genetic makeup and surrounding environment on behaviour.

Thenature-nurture debatehighlights a key argument in psychology, over the relative influence of biology and environment on the characteristics of an individual; an extreme biological approach assumes that these are determined solely by nature.

Question 37

AP: Topic 3: The biological approach and biopsychology. Describe the influence of biological structures on our behaviour.

Answer 37

Biological structures:

Two major systems of the human body which biological psychologists are interested in are the nervous system and the endocrine system.
The nervous system uses electric currents to pass messages along nerves and chemicals to pass messages from one nerve to the next across a gap called the synapse.

The endocrine system is based on chemicals passing through the blood from one organ to ‘target’ sites. These chemicals are hormones and they are produced in glands. For example, you know of one called adrenaline which is made in the adrenal glands. It is used at synapses where the chemical noradrenaline is being used to pass messages from one neurone to another or to a gland such as the heart etc.

The peripheral nervous system is made up of the somatic nervous system, which communicates between the CNS and the muscles and skin, and the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which involves unconscious control of various glands. Knowledge of the autonomic nervous system will be very important when you go on to study the stress response.

Other biological structures required by the specification include:

1. The central nervous system (CNS) = The section of the nervous system that’s made up of the brain and the spinal chord. Also what causes you to reflexively jerk your hand away from something, such as heat, before you even perceive the temperature.
2. The neurone = Neurons (also called neurones or nerve cells) arethe fundamental units of the brain and nervous system, the cells responsible for receiving sensory input from the external world, for sending motor commands to our muscles, and for transforming and relaying the electrical signals at every step in between.

The three types of neuron include:

1.Sensory neurons:

Sensory neurons are the nerve cells that are activated by sensory input from the environment - for example, when you touch a hot surface with your fingertips, the sensory neurons will be the ones firing and sending off signals to the rest of the nervous system about the information they have received.

The inputs that activate sensory neurons can be physical or chemical, corresponding to all five of our senses. Thus, a physical input can be things like sound, touch, heat, or light. A chemical input comes from taste or smell, which neurons then send to the brain.

2. Motor neurons:

Motor neurons of the spinal cord are part of thecentral nervous system(CNS) and connect to muscles, glands and organs throughout the body. These neurons transmit impulses from thespinal cordto skeletal and smooth muscles (such as those in your stomach), and so directly control all of our muscle movements.

3. Relay Neurons:

A relay neuron (also known as an interneuron) allows sensory and motor neurons to communicate with each other. Relay neurons connect various neurons within the brain and spinal cord, and are easy to recognize, due to their short axons.

Alike to motor neurons, interneurons are multipolar. This means they have one axon and several dendrites.

As well as acting as a connection between neurons, interneurons can also communicate with each other through forming circuits of differing complexities.

3. Endocrine System = The system that’s made up of a set of glands that secrete chemicals called hormones into your blood stream. + Pituitary Gland Also known as the ‘“master gland,” it secretes hormones which often signal other glands in the Endocrine System.
   Your endocrine system: Makes hormones that control your moods, growth and development, metabolism, organs, and reproduction. Controls how your hormones are released.

Question 38

AP: Topic 3: The biological approach and biopsychology. Describe the influence of Neurochemistry on our behaviour.

Answer 38

Neurochemistry:

Neurochemistry is the biochemistry of the nervous system. As mentioned above, chemicals are used at the synapse. These are called neurotransmitters and are produced at the terminal of a neurone and then diffuse across the gap to the next neurone or gland. In the brain chemicals are passed through the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF), one such being Dopamine that is a neurotransmitter which, in high levels, is implicated in schizophrenia.

Neurochemistryis a branch ofneurosciencethat is heavily devoted to the study of neurochemicals. A neurochemical is anorganicmolecule that participates in neural activity. This term is often used to refer toneurotransmittersand other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influenceneuronfunction.

Because chemical substances in a physiological system obey the laws of nature that apply in other environments, the activities of neurotransmitters, drugs, and other molecules in the nervous system can be explained in terms of basic chemical concepts.

Neurotransmitters,when a nerve impulse reaches the end of one neuron, a chemical called a neurotransmitter is released. It travels from one neuron to the next across a junction called asynapse.There are many different types of neurotransmitter, some of which trigger the receiving neuron to send an impulse and some stop it from doing so.

Those ones that trigger nerve impulses in the receiving neuron and stimulate brain into action are calledexcitatory neurotransmitters. Those that inhibit nerve impulses in order to calm the brain and balance mood are calledinhibitory neurotransmitters.Dopamineis an excitatory neurotransmitters that is associated with our drive or motivation

Question 39

AP: Topic 3: The biological approach and biopsychology. Distinguish the between a Genotype and phenotype.

Answer 39

Genotype- the genetic code that is written in the DNA of an individuals cells. Unless you have an identical twin, your genotype is unique to you.

Phenotype- the physical appearance that results from this inherited information.This refers to the way the genes are expressed in the behaviour or physical appearance of an individual. The phenotype can be influenced by the environmental.

Question 40

AP: Topic 3: The biological approach and biopsychology. Evaluate the biological approach. (+A03).

Answer 40

Evaluation

Summary of strengths:

> Strengths- The importance of the scientific method- the biological approach uses the scientific method particularly the use of the experiment method of investigation. Experimental studies take place in highly controlled environments so that other researchers are able to replicate research studies under the same experimental conditions, thus adding to the validity of the original findings if they can be reproduced.

> Applications of biological approach-itprovides clear predictions which has led to significant applications of biological research in the real world. For example, research into the role of neurochemical imbalance in depression hasled to the development of drug treatments which correct this imbalance and minimise depressive symptoms.

Limitations:
> The biological approach is reductionist- this is the belief that complex human behaviour can be explained by breaking itdown into its smallest components, such as the action of genes, neurochemicals and hormones. For example many explanations of mental health are reductionist because genes or neurochemical imbalances are believed to be the main causes of these disorders.

> Problems for evolutionary explanations of behaviour- because most human behaviour can be transmitted by both genetic and cultural routes, an evolutionary explanation of behaviour is complicate by this additional possibility. Critics of evolutionary explanations claim that many established patterns of human behaviour have purely cultural origins with no survival or reproductive value.

Question 41

AP: Topic 3: The biological approach and biopsychology. + Futher biopsychology: Summarise the biological approach and biopsychology in the learning objectives.

Answer 41

describe the basic assumptions of the biological approach

describe the influence of genes on behaviour

describe the influence of biological structures on behaviour

describe the influence of neurochemistry on behaviour

distinguish between genotype and phenotype

describe the role of evolution in the changing of behaviour

describe the different types of neurones, including sensory, motor and relay

describe the nervous system in terms of its major divisions of CNS and peripheral (autonomic and somatic)

describe the process of synaptic transmission, including reference to neurotransmitters

describe the terms excitation and inhibition

describe the function of the endocrine system with reference to glands and hormones

explain the fight or flight response including the role of adrenaline.

Question 42

AP: Topic 4: The psychodynamic approach and the Humanistic approach: > The Psychodynamic approach. firstly outline what is meant by ‘psychodynamic approach’/ it’s main assumptions.

Answer 42

Psychodynamic theory, also known as psychoanalytic psychotherapy,helps clients understand their emotions and unconscious patterns of behavior. By talking through these emotions and behaviors with a social worker, clients come to know themselves better and make better decisions for themselves.

Psychodynamic Approach: Main Assumptions(AO1)

The main assumption of the psychodynamic approach is that all behavior can be explained in terms of theinner conflictsof the mind.

Freud highlights the role of theunconscious mind, the structure of personality and the influence thatchildhood experienceshave on later life.

Freud believed that the unconscious minddeterminesmost of our behavior and that we are motivated by unconscious emotional drives.

Question 43

AP: Topic 4: The psychodynamic approach and the Humanistic approach: > The Psychodynamic approach. Outline Freud’s contribution to this approach.

Answer 43

Sigmund Freud – psychiatrist, neurologist and key pioneer of the psychodynamic approach (including his psychoanalytic theory of personality) – theorised that our mental activity is mostly unconscious, and it is this unconscious activity that causes our behaviour. He explained that traumatic childhood experiences pushed into the unconscious mind can later lead to mental disorders, and developed ‘talking cures’ (psychoanalysis, or more generally termed psychotherapy) to help release problematic repressed memories and relieve symptoms.

Question 44

AP: Topic 4: The psychodynamic approach and the Humanistic approach: > The Psychodynamic approach. Outline the ‘Psychosexual Stages’.

Answer 44

Freud also thought that humans progress through ‘psychosexual stages’, during the development of the psyche. He named five stages, each with a particular characteristic behaviour:

Oral– sucking behaviour (0-18 months).

Anal– holding or discarding faeces (18 months – 3.5 years).

Phallic– fixation on genitals (3.5 – 6 years).

Latency– repressed sexual urges (6 years - puberty).

Genital– awakened sexual urges (puberty onwards).

Freud claimed that, during development, becoming fixated on one of these stages would restrict full development result in displaying specific personality symptoms. An ‘anally retentive’ personality is one such symptom – he proposed that when conflict occurs over potty training, a person could become fixated on cleanliness and orderliness to an extreme.

Question 45

AP: Topic 4: The psychodynamic approach and the Humanistic approach: > The Psychodynamic approach. Outline the ‘The Role of the Unconscious mind and concept of the ‘tripartite personality’.

Answer 45

Tripartite Personality(AO1):

According to Freud our personality is composed of three parts (tripartite):

1. The Id: it is the biological part (instincts and drives) of the personality. It is present at birth. The Id is motivated by the pleasure principle; it demands instant gratification of its needs.
2. The Ego: develops from 1 - 3 years. It is motivated by the reality principle. It mediates the conflicts between the ID and superego. It uses defence mechanisms to achieve this.

The Superego: develops from 3 - 5 years. It is motivated by the morality principle. It punishes the ego with guilt for “wrong doing”.

To be mentally healthy the ego has to be able to balance the demands of the ego and the superego. If the superego is dominant, the individual might develop a neurosis e.g. depression. If the ID is dominant, the individual might develop a psychosis e.g. schizophrenia.

The Mind(AO1).

The mind is divided in three parts:

1. The conscious: this is the part we are aware of and can access without any effort. It contains part of the ego.
2. The preconscious: this a part of the mind that we cannot access without effort. It contains the ego and some of the superego.
3. The unconscious: this part of the mind cannot be accessed without the help of a trained psychoanalyst. It contains the superego and the Id.

When unconscious conflicts between the Id and the superego cannot be resolved by the ego they create anxiety. To reduce this anxiety we usedefense mechanismssuch as repression.

Question 46

AP: Topic 4: The psychodynamic approach and the Humanistic approach: > The Psychodynamic approach. Outline the Ego defense mechanisms.

Answer 46

Ego Defence Mechanisms:

The ego balances potential conflict between the ID and superego, and tries to reduce anxiety. In areas of significant conflict, the ego can redirect psychic energy using ‘defense mechanisms’. Three key mechanisms Freud proposed are:

Repression– burying an unpleasant thought or desire in the unconscious (e.g. traumatic childhood experiences may be repressed and so forgotten).

Displacement– emotions are directed away from their source or target, towards other things (e.g. wringing a dishcloth in anger, which would have otherwise been directed at the cat scratching the furniture).

Denial– a threatening thought is ignored or treated as if it were not true (e.g. a wife might find evidence that her husband is cheating on her, but explain it away using other reasons).

Question 47

AP: Topic 4: The psychodynamic approach and the Humanistic approach: > The Psychodynamic approach. Briefly outline the contribution of research methods in the approach.

Answer 47

Research methods used by the approach:

Freud’s psychoanalytical theory was based on case studies, which gather large amounts of detailed information about individuals or small groups. These cases were of patients with which he used psychoanalysis (‘talking cures’), the aim of which to bring unconscious mental activity to the conscious to release anxiety. Techniques to do this include:

Free association– expressing immediate [unconscious] thoughts, as they happen

Dream interpretation– analysing thelatent content(i.e. underlying meaning) ofmanifest content(i.e. what was remembered from the dream).

Current psychologists using the psychodynamic approach still utilize case study evidence (e.g. recording psychoanalytic interviews) to provide proof of their explanations.

Question 48

AP: Topic 4: The psychodynamic approach and the Humanistic approach: > The Psychodynamic approach. Provide a brief evaluation to this approach (including strengths/ weaknesses).

Answer 48

Summary of Strengths:
- Freud highlighted a widely accepted link between childhood experience and adult characteristics.

• Case study methodology embraces our complex behaviour by gathering rich information, and on an individual basis – an idiographic approach – when conducting research.
• Some evidence supports the existence of ego defence mechanisms such as repression, e.g. adults can forget traumatic child sexual abuse (Williams, 1994).
• Modern day psychiatry still utilizes Freudian psychoanalytic techniques.

Summary of Weaknesses:
- It could be argued that Freud’s approach overemphasises childhood experience as the source of abnormality (although modern psychodynamic theories give more recognition to the adult problems of everyday life, such as the effects of negative interpersonal relationships).

• By using case studies to support theories, the approach does not use controlled experiments to collect empirical evidence, so is considered far less scientific than other approaches.
• Case study evidence is difficult to generalise to wider populations.
• Many of Freud’s ideas are considered non-falsifiable – theories may appear to reflect evidence, but you cannot observe the relevant constructs directly (namely the unconscious mind) to test them scientifically, such that they could be proved wrong. Philosopher of science Karl Popper famously argued that a theory is not scientific if it is not falsifiable.

Question 49

AP: Topic 5: The psychodynamic approach and the Humanistic approach: > The Humanistic approach. firstly outline what is meant by the ‘Humanistic approach’/ it’s main assumptions.

Answer 49

Humanistic, humanism and humanist are terms in psychology relating to an approach which studies the whole person and the uniqueness of each individual. Essentially, these terms refer to the same approach in psychology.

Humanistic psychology is a perspective that emphasizes looking at the the whole person, and the uniqueness of each individual. Humanistic psychology begins with the existential assumptions that people have free will and are motivated to acheive their potential and self-actualize.

The humanistic approach in psychology developed as a rebellion against what some psychologists saw as the limitations of the behaviorist and psychodynamic psychology.

Basic Assumptions:

1. Humanistic psychology begins with the existential assumption that people have free will:

Personal agency is the humanistic term for the exercise of free will. Personal agency refers to the choices we make in life, the paths we go down and their consequences.

2. People are basically good, and have an innate need to make themselves and the world better:

The humanistic approach emphasizes the personal worth of the individual, the centrality of human values, and the creative, active nature of human beings.

The approach is optimistic and focuses on the noble human capacity to overcome hardship, pain and despair.

3. People are motivated to self-actualize:

Self-actualization concerns psychological growth, fulfillment and satisfaction in life

Both Rogers and Maslow regarded personal growth and fulfillment in life as a basic human motive. This means that each person, in different ways, seeks to grow psychologically and continuously enhance themselves.

However, Rogers and Maslow both describe different ways of how self-actualization can be achieved.

4. The subjective, conscious experiences of the individual is most important:

Humanistic psychologists argue that objective reality is less important than a person’s subjective perception and understanding of the world.
Sometimes the humanistic approach is called phenomenological. This means that personality is studied from the point of view of the individual’s subjective experience.

ForRogersthe focus of psychology is not behavior (Skinner), the unconscious (Freud), thinking (Wundt) or the human brain but how individuals perceive and interpret events. Rogers is therefore important because he redirected psychology towards the study ofthe self.

Question 50

AP: Topic 5: The psychodynamic approach and the Humanistic approach: > The Humanistic approach. Outline Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, and the context behind it.

Answer 50

Starting from the bottom of Pyramid to the top:

1. Physiological Needs > Food, water, clothing, sleep, and shelter are the bare necessities for anyone’s survival. For many people, these basic needs can not be met without the aid of charitable organizations. A reliable place to receive a meal can be what’s needed for a person to focus on obtaining higher needs.
2. Safety and Security > Once a person’s basic needs are satisfied, the want for order and predictability sets in.There are many barriers that may prevent people experiencing homelessness from finding job security and building a stable social network.
3. Love and Belonging > Everyone yearns for family and connection. For people living on the streets, it can be especially hard to find a welcoming community. Many folks are traumatized and find themselves without housing after experiencing domestic violence, abuse, or addiction, and mental health challenges. Many people living unhoused find themselves estranged from family and friends.
4. Esteem > Gaining confidence and the respect of others is an important step for people working to maintain employment and recovery from addiction. Only after finding love and belonging, can people then work on building healthy relationships with themselves and others.
5. Self-Actualization> According to Maslow, we all crave a purposeful life. There’s nothing more rewarding than feeling like you’ve reached your highest potential. However, this final step looks and feels different for everyone.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

One of the first major proponents of humanistic psychology was Abraham Maslow. Coming from a background of developmental psychology, Maslow attempted to develop a theory by which to explain the diversity of human needs and motivation.

In the course of his studies, he was able to develop a model to express these needs that has since become quite popular across the world, being referred to as either the “hierarchy of needs” or sometimes

For Maslow, the goal of any human being is to reach a state of “self-actualization” in which all their needs are met and a state of contented happiness is achieved. However, these needs must be met in a particular order. The base of the pyramid shows the physical needs that all humans share, such as the need to eat, drink, have shelter from the elements, and so on.

According to Maslow, higher forms of happiness are not achievable so long as these needs are not met.

Moving up the pyramid from there, one must have safety needs met, then one must feel love towards and from his friends and family. After this, one must receive self-validation and a feeling of self-worth from one’s self. Lastly, a state of self-actualization and creative work is possible. However, if any of the levels of the pyramid goes unfulfilled at any time, the subject must return to that level. In other words, self-actualization isn’t a permanent state, but rather a continuous battle.

The primary idea to retain from this model is that human motivation is complex, and while working towards the primary goal of self-actualization, their particular needs and pursuits might change dramatically.

Question 51

AP: Topic 5: The psychodynamic approach and the Humanistic approach: > The Humanistic approach. Outline the three differing concepts of Free will/ Self-actualisation/ The self and congruence.

Answer 51

1. Free will: >Other approaches to psychology are determinist to a greater or lesser extent, believing that human behaviour id shaped or determined by influences such as biology, learning, upbringing and so on. Humanistic psychology suggests that humans actually have free will over their actions- the ability to make genuine free choices over their actions. Therefore, it rejects the attempts by other approaches to establish general laws of behaviour, suggesting that human behaviour is unpredictable and that each person is unique, as everyone makes their own choices in life.
2. Self-actualisation:> Maslow believed that humans have a ‘hierarchy of needs’ which need to be met in order to be satisfied, and develop as a person. The most basic needs are physiological (food, water and so on), followed by safety and security (having a home and family), love and belongingness, (having friends and positive relationships with family members), self-esteem (self-confidence and respect of others), and finally self-actualisation (creativity and spontaneity). Self-actualisation is the ability of humans to develop and achieve their potential. If the other, more basic needs are not met, then the person cannot self-actualise any may become unhappy or depressed as a result.
3. The self and congruence: >Rogers suggested that in order to grow and develop, there must be congruence (equivalence) between a person’s concept of self- the person they perceive themselves as- and their ideal self- the person they would like to be. If there is too big a gap between these, the person experiences incongruence and will not be able to self-actualise, therefore possibly becoming anxious and depressed.

Question 52

AP: Topic 5: The psychodynamic approach and the Humanistic approach: > The Humanistic approach. Outline the role of client-centred (humanstic) therapy/ counselling. (Rodgers et al).

Answer 52

Carl Rogers and Unconditional Positive Regard:

Carl Rogers was another of the important figures in early humanistic psychology. He was the first to advocate for the importance of “unconditional positive regard”, a way of viewing one’s self in which one is unconditionally positive and accepting, maintaining the right to be critical without being judgmental or overly harsh. For Rogers, this state of positive regard towards one’s self was essential to psychological development, and in maintaining strong personal relationships.

Therapeutically, Rogers believed in a client-directed approach to matters. In a therapy session, he would simply listen non-judgmentally and allows his clients to speak about anything they wished, reasoning that with a little bit of guidance, people had the intelligence and self-awareness to direct their own progress towards wellness.

This degree of “patient control” in clinical practice was revolutionary in the realm of psychology, and in the realm of humanistic thought in general.

Humanstic therapy:

Conditions of worth:
According to the theory, personal growth is hampered by experiencing conditional positive regard, where in order to get postive regard,the person has to meet certain requirements. For example, a child may feel that they can only reduce approval from a parent when they are performing well at school.
- conditional positive regard limits the chances of achieving self-actualization, as the person is unlikely to achieve congruence because they feel their ideal self and their self-concept are different.

Application:
Rodgers proposed that there are three selves which need to be integrated in order to feel good:
1. The self-concept.
2. The real self.
3. The ideal self.

• Client-centred therapy aims to allow personal growth by providing unconditional postive regard where the client is accepted for who they are without judgement.

Question 53

AP: Topic 5: The psychodynamic approach and the Humanistic approach: > The Humanistic approach. Provide a brief evaluation to this approach (including strengths/ weaknesses).

Answer 53

Advantages:

• Rejects reductionism and uses holism- behaviour cant be broken up into simple processes; has high external validity.
• Least deterministic approach focusing more on free will.
• Positive Approach- focuses on human as whole and believes that people want to better themselves

Disadvantages:

• Doesn’t use reductionism- less scientific and unfalsifiable.
• Poor real life application outside of therapy due to abstract ideas
• Western Culture Bias: western cultures focus on individuals, eastern cultures focus on groups and collectivism , e.g India

Question 54

AP: Topic 6: Comparison of approaches 1: Determism vs Free Will.

Answer 54

1. The Cognitive approach: Free will Vs determinism >The position of the approach is unclear as it argues on one hand that we the way we process information is determined by our past experience (schemas). On the other hand in the therapy derived from the approach (CBT) it argues that we can change the way we think.
2. The Biological approach: Free will Vs determinism >It is strongly determinist as it views our behavior as caused entirely by biological factors over which we have no control.
3. The Learning/ Behaviourist approach: Free will Vs determinism > Strong determinism of the behavioral approach as all behavior is learnt from our environment through classical and operant conditioning. We are the sum total of our previous conditioning. Softer determinism of the social learning approach theory as it recognises an element of choice as to whether we imitate a behavior or not.
4. The Psychodynamic approach: Free will Vs determinism > It is strongly determinist as it views our behavior as caused entirely by unconscious factors over which we have no control.
5. The Humanistic approach: Free will Vs determinism > It is the only approach that explicitly states that people have free will, but its position on this topic is somewhat incoherent as on one hand it argues that people have free will but, on the other hand it argues that our behavior is determined by the way other people treat us (whether we feel that we are valued and respected without reservation by those around us).

Question 55

AP: Topic 6: Comparison of approaches 2: Nature Vs Nuture.

Answer 55

1. The Cognitive approach: Nature Vs nurture > The cognitive approach takes an interactionist view of the debate as it argues that our behavior is influenced by learning and experience (nurture), but also by some of our brains’ innate capacities as information processors e.g. language acquisition (nature).
2. The Biological approach: Nature Vs nurture > The biological approach is firmly on the nature side of the debate; however, it does recognise that our brain is a plastic organ which changes with experience in our social world so it does not entirely deny the influence of nurture.
3. The Learning/ Behaviourist approach: Nature Vs nurture > Behaviorism is very much on the nurture side of the debate as it argues that our behavior is learnt from the environment. The social learning theory is also on the nurture side because it argues that we learn our behavior from role models in our environment. The behaviorist approach proposes that apart from a few innate reflexes and the capacity for learning, all complex behavior is learned from the environment.
4. The Psychodynamic approach: Nature Vs nurture > The psychodynamic approach recognises the influence of social factors as it argues that we are driven by innate biological instincts, represented by the Id (nature), but the ways these instincts are expressed is shaped by our social and cultural environment (nurture).
5. The Humanistic approach: Nature Vs nurture > The approach recognises both the influence of nature and nurture, nurture- the influence of experiences on a person’s ways of perceiving and understanding the world, nature- influence of biological drives and needs (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs).

Question 56

AP: Topic 6: Comparison of approaches 3: Holism Vs reductionism.

Answer 56

1. The Cognitive approach: Holism Vs reductionism > The cognitive approach tends to be reductionist as when studying a variable it isolates processes such as memory from other cognitive processes. However, in our normal life we would use many cognitive processes simultaneously, so it lacks validity.
2. The Biological approach: Holism Vs reductionism > The biological approach is reductionist as it aims at explaining all behavior by the action of genetic or biochemical processes. It neglects the influence of factors such as early childhood experiences, conditioning or cognitive processes.
3. The Learning/ Behaviourist approach: Holism Vs reductionism > The biological approach is reductionist as it aims at explaining all behavior by the action of genetic or biochemical processes. It neglects the influence of factors such as early childhood experiences, conditioning or cognitive processes.
4. The Psychodynamic approach: Holism Vs reductionism > The psychodynamic approach is determinist as it rejects the idea of free will. A person’s behavior is determined by their unconscious motives which are shaped by their biological drives and their early experiences.
5. The Humanistic approach: Nature Vs nurture > The approach recognises both the influence of nature and nurture, nurture- the influence of experiences on a person’s ways of perceiving and understanding the world, nature- influence of biological drives and needs (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs).

Question 57

AP: Topic 6:Comparison of approaches 4: Idiographic Vs nomothetic.

Answer 57

1. The Cognitive approach: Idiographic Vs nomothetic > It is nomothetic approach as it focuses on establishing theories oninformation processingthat apply to all people.
2. The Biological approach: Idiographic Vs nomothetic > It is nomothetic approach as it focuses on establishing laws and theories about the effects of physiological and biochemical processes that apply to all people.
3. The Learning/ Behaviourist approach: Idiographic Vs nomothetic > It is a nomothetic approach as it views all behavior governed by the same laws of conditioning.
   However, it does account for individual differences and explain them in terms of difference of history of conditioning.
4. The Psychodynamic approach: Idiographic Vs nomothetic > Freud argued that human behavior is governed by universal processes that apply to everyone e.g. the tripartite structure of the mind (nomothetic) however, he also proposed that the ways in which these processes manifest themselves in the individual is unique (idiographic).
5. The Humanistic approach: Idiographic Vs nomothetic > As this approach views the individual as unique it does not attempt to establish universal laws about the causes of behavior, it is an idiographic approach.

Question 58

AP: Topic 6: Comparison of approaches 5: Can the research methods be claimed to be scientific?

Answer 58

1. The Cognitive approach: Are the research methods used scientific? > The cognitive approach uses lab. experiments which are highly controlled therefore they are replicable. However, it measures non-observable behaviors; therefore it could be argued that it is not as scientific as the behaviorist approach.
2. The Biological approach: Are the research methods used scientific? > The biological approach uses very scientific methods such as scans, and biochemistry. Animals are often used in this approach as the approach assumes that humans are physiologically similar to animals.
3. The Learning/ Behaviourist approach: Are the research methods used scientific? > The behaviorist approach uses lab. experiments which are highly controlled therefore they are replicable. Furthermore, it measures observable behaviors, therefore no interpretations is required therefore the data is objective.
   However the behaviorists use animal experiments as it assumes that humans learn in the same way than animals.
4. The Psychodynamic approach: Are the research methods used scientific? > The concepts proposed by Freud cannot be tested empirically. The theory is not falsifiable as if people behave in the way predicted by the theory it is viewed as support, if they don’t it is argued that they are using defence mechanisms.
5. The Humanistic approach: Are the research methods used scientific? > As the approach views the individual as unique it does not believe that scientific measurements of their behavior are appropriate.

Question 59

AP: Topic 6 +: The approaches - as outlined in the specification.

Answer 59

Origins of Psychology: Wundt, introspection and the emergence of Psychology as ascience.
The basic assumptions of the following approaches:

Learning approaches: i) the behaviourist approach, including classical conditioning and Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research; ii) social learning theory including imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement, the role of mediational processes and Bandura’s research.

The cognitive approach: the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema,the use of theoretical and computer models toexplain and make inferences about mentalprocesses. The emergence of cognitiveneuroscience.

The biological approach: the influence of genes, biological structures andneurochemistry on behaviour. Genotype andphenotype, genetic basis of behaviour, evolutionand behaviour.

The psychodynamic approach: the role of the unconscious, the structure ofpersonality, that is Id, Ego and Superego, defence mechanisms including repression, denialand displacement, psychosexual stages.

Humanistic Psychology: free will, self-actualisation and Maslow’s hierarchy ofneeds, focus on the self, congruence, the role of conditions of worth. The influence oncounselling Psychology.

Comparison of approaches.

Answer 60

1. The Cognitive approach:
2. The Biological approach:
3. The Learning/ Behaviourist approach:
4. The Psychodynamic approach:
5. The Humanistic approach: