Paper 1 Memory

Question 1

Define memory ?

Answer 1

process by which we retain information about events that happened in the past

Question 2

What are the two stories of memory ?

Answer 2

Short term memory - memory of events in the immediate past
Long term memory - memory from events in the distant past

Question 3

Define capacity and describe the difference in the capacity of STM and LTM ?

Answer 3

Measure of how much information can be held in each memory store
STM = limited capacity where as LTM has a potential unlimited capacity

Question 4

How did Miller measure STM capacity (Procedure, findings and conclusions)?

Answer 4

Procedure:
Used serial digit span method
Participants given increasingly long lists of numbers
Asked to recall them in order

Findings:
Most recalled 7 digits
Some could recall only 5, others up to 9

Conclusion:
STM capacity = 7 ± 2 chunks

Question 5

What is the capacity of STM?

Answer 5

STM has a limited capacity, meaning too much information leads to displacement
Displacement occurs when old information is pushed out by new information
Capacity can be increased through chunking
Chunking = grouping information into larger meaningful units

Question 6

Define duration and describe the difference in the duration of STM and LTM ?

Answer 6

Measure of how long a memory lasts before it is no longer available
LTM = potentially unlimited duration where as STM has a limited duration

Question 7

How can duration be increased in the STM?

Answer 7

Duration can be extended through maintenance rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal = repeating information verbally
If rehearsed enough, information transfers to long-term memory (LTM)

Question 8

How did Peterson & Peterson measure STM duration (Procedure, findings and conclusions)?

Answer 8

Procedure:
Participants given a nonsense trigram (e.g., ZFB)
Asked to count backwards in threes (to prevent rehearsal)
Recall tested after different time intervals (3s, 6s, 9s, 12s, 15s, 18s)

Findings:
80% recalled after 3 seconds
Only 10% recalled after 18 seconds

Conclusion:
STM lasts between 20–30 seconds without rehearsal

Question 9

Define coding and describe the difference in the coding of STM and LTM ?

Answer 9

The way information s changed so it can be stored in memory.
STM = acoustically (sounds)
LTM = semantically (meaning)

Question 10

What did Baddeley’s (1966a) study on STM coding show?

Answer 10

Procedure:
Participants divided into four groups
One group heard acoustically similar words, one group heard acoustically dissimilar words, one group heard semantically similar words, last group heard semantically dissimilar words
Asked to immediately recall words in the correct order

Findings:
Participants struggled to recall acoustically similar words (55%)

Conclusion:
STM codes acoustically because similar-sounding words caused confusion

Question 11

What did Baddeley’s (1966b) study on LTM coding show?

Answer 11

Procedure :
Participants were split into 4 groups
Each listened to 10 words from same categories as 1966a
Asked to recall 10 words in the correct order after 20 mins

Findings:
Participants struggled to recall acoustically similar words (55%)

Conclusion:
LTM codes semantically because similar-sounding words caused confusion

Question 12

Who proposed the Multi-Store Model (MSM) of memory?

Answer 12

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)

Question 13

Describe the of the MSM model describes memory

Answer 13

Characterises memory as the flow of information through a system in a fixed sequence.

Question 14

Describe how the MSM model works (can include a diagram)

Answer 14

Information from environment enters the sensory register in its raw form and remains here only for a short period unless paid attention to, in which case is transferred to there STM. This memory can then be moved to the LTM by maintenance rehearsal.

Question 15

What are the different sensory stores in the SR?

Answer 15

Touch, taste, vision, hearing and smell

Question 16

What happens to information in the sensory register if it is not attended to?

Answer 16

It quickly decays and is lost.

Question 17

Explain how information can be forgotten in the STM ?

Answer 17

Limited duration = information forgotten by decay
Limited capacity = information forgotten by displacement which is when old information is pushed out by new incoming information

Question 18

How can decay and displacement be prevented in the STM ?

Answer 18

Maintenance rehearsal which allows repetition meaning transferred to the LTM

Question 19

Explain how information can be forgotten in the LTM ?

Answer 19

Decay

Question 20

How do we recall information from LTM?

Answer 20

It is retrieved from LTM back to STM, where it can then be used as output.

Question 21

What causes retrieval failure in the LTM and explain what is meant by retrival failure ?

Answer 21

Retrival failure is caused by there being no suitable retrival cue and is the process by which items stored in the LTM cannot be accessed by the STM

Question 22

Who proposed the Working Memory Model (WMM), and when?

Answer 22

Baddeley & Hitch (1974)

Question 23

What does the Working Memory Model (WMM) suggest about STM?

Answer 23

It suggests that information in STM is processed (worked on) while being stored

Question 24

How does the WMM differ from previous models of STM?

Answer 24

It replaces the idea of a unitary STM with multiple components.

Question 25

What are the four components of the WMM?

Answer 25

Central executive (CE) Phonological loop (PL) Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS) Episodic buffer (EB)

Question 26

What is the function of the Central Executive (CE) and what two key characteristics of the CE ?

Answer 26

Has a supervisory role, directing information to the three slave systems and collecting responses Two key characteristics : It has a limited capacity It can process information from any sensory system

Question 27

What is the Phonological Loop (PL) responsible for and what are the two sub-components of the Phonological Loop (PL)?

Answer 27

Temporarily storing and processing auditory information Two components : Phonological Store - Holds words you hear for a short time Articulatory control process (inner voice) – Silently rehearses words you hear using sub-vocal repetition

Question 28

What is the Visuo-spatial Sketchpad (VSS) responsible for and what are the two sub-components of the Phonological Loop (PL)?

Answer 28

Temporarily storing and processing visual and spatial information. Two components : Visual cache – Stores visual information Inner scribe – Deals with spatial relations, recording arrangement of objects in the visual field

Question 29

When was the Episodic Buffer (EB) added to the WMM and what is its role?

Answer 29

Added in 2000 by Baddeley Acts as an extra storage system with limited capacity. Integrates information from the CE, PL, VSS, and LTM by recording events (episodes) that are happening

Question 30

What is informational social influence,what type if process is it, when does it occur, and what is its typical outcome?

Answer 30

•Informational social influence (ISI) is based upon the desire to be right and is a cognitive process •It occurs when an individual looks to the majority to give them information about the right way to behave or think • ISI is likely to occur o In unfamiliar situations o In ambiguous situations (i.e. when the right course of action is unclear) • ISI is likely to result in internalisation

Question 31

What is normative social influence, what type of process is it when does it occur, and what is its typical outcome?

Answer 31

• Normative social influence (NSI) is based upon the desire to be liked and is an emotional process • It occurs when an individual changes their behaviours and/or beliefs in order to be liked and accepted by the majority • NSI is likely to occur o In friendship groups • NSI is likely to result in compliance

Question 32

What is a criticism of the MSM regrading the LTM ?

Answer 32

LTM is not a unitary store

Question 33

What are the three different types of LTM

Answer 33

Episodic memory Semantic memory Procedural memory

Question 34

What is episodic memory?

Answer 34

Episodic memory is a long-term memory store for personal experiences

Question 35

What are the three elements of the episodic memory in LTM

Answer 35

Several elements, such as when it happened (time stamped) and the people, places, objects, and emotions involved. Requires conscious effort to recall

Question 36

What is semantic memory?

Answer 36

Semantic memory is a long-term memory store for knowledge

Question 37

How are semantic memories acquired ?

Answer 37

Begin as episodic memories because we acquire knowledge based on experience, gradually transition from episodic to somatic where the memory loosed association to a specific event.

Question 38

How are semantic memories retrieved?

Answer 38

Memories from this store have to be retrieved consciously and with effort

Question 39

What is procedural memory and how do we acquire them ?

Answer 39

Long-term memory store for our knowledge of how to do skills and actions which we acquire through repetition and practice

Question 40

How are procedural memories retrieved?

Answer 40

Memories from this store are usually recalled without having to make a conscious effort

Question 41

What theory explains forgetting in LTM beginning with I and define it ?

Answer 41

Interference theory and is defined as when one memory in LTM disrupts the ability to recall another memory in LTM

Question 42

What are the two types of interference and define each?

Answer 42

Proactive interference - when a old memory interferes with a new Retroactive interference - when a new memory interferes with an old

Question 43

How does similarity affect interference?

Answer 43

The interference is worse when the memories are similar

Question 44

What research demonstrated the effects of similarity on interference?

Answer 44

Research was conducted by McGeoch & McDonald (1931) to demonstrate this

Question 45

What was the procedure of McGeoch & McDonald’s (1931) study into the effects of similarity on interference?

Answer 45

- Participants were asked to learn a list of 10 words until they could recall them with 100% accuracy - They were then divided into six groups - Group 1: Learnt a list of synonyms , Group 2: autonyms, Group 3: Learnt a list of words unrelated to the original words, Group 4: Learnt a list of nonsense syllables (letter combinations without meaning), Group 5: Learnt a list of three-digit numbers, Group 6: Did not learn a new list - Participants were then asked to recall the original list of words

Question 46

What were the findings of McGeoch & McDonald’s (1931) study into the effects of similarity on interference?

Answer 46

Performance depended upon the nature of the second list. Finding that most similar material (the synonyms) produced the worst recall

Question 47

What conclusion did McGeoch & McDonald (1931) draw into the effects of similarity on interference?

Answer 47

McGeoch & McDonald concluded that this demonstrates that interference is strongest when memories are similar

Question 48

What is retrieval failure, and how does it relate to forgetting in LTM?

Answer 48

Form of forgetting when we do not have the necessary cues to access a memory. The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided.

Question 49

What is a cue in content of retrieval theory ?

Answer 49

Acts as a reminder to help access a memory

Question 50

What are the two main forms of retrieval failure?

Answer 50

Context - dependant forgetting State - dependant forgetting

Question 51

Describe the Encoding specificity principle developed by Tulving ?

Answer 51

- Reviewed research into retrieval failure - Consistent pattern - if a cue is to help recall then it needs to be present during encoding + retrieval. If cues available at encoding and retrieval = different or absent on retrieval = forgetting. This is known as the ESP

Question 52

Describe the experiment conducted by Tulving and Pearlstone into ESP ?

Answer 52

Participants learn 48 words which are in 12 categories Each word = category + word 2 recall conditions included : 1. Cues given in the form of category names = cued recall, 2. Not given any cues = free recall Found that those using free recall remembered 40% words, those who used cue recall = 60%

Question 54

What is context-dependent forgetting?

Answer 54

Occurs when external cues available at the time of learning are not available at the time of retrieval, making memory recall less effective.

Question 55

How did Godden & Baddeley (1975) conduct their experiment into context-dependent forgetting ?

Answer 55

- Scuba diver participants learned a list of words either on land or underwater - This creates four experimental conditions : 1. Learn on land – Recall on land 2. Learn on land – Recall underwater 3. Learn underwater – Recall underwater 4. Learn underwater – Recall on land

Question 56

What were the findings of Godden & Baddeley’s (1975) study about context-dependent forgetting?

Answer 56

Accurate recall was lower in the non-matching conditions than in the matching conditions.

Question 57

What conclusion did Godden & Baddeley draw from their study about context dependant forgetting?

Answer 57

Concluded that retrieval failure occurred because the external cues available at learning were different from those available at recall, preventing memory access

Question 58

What is state-dependent forgetting?

Answer 58

Occurs when internal cues available at the time of learning are not available at the time of retrieval, making memory recall less effective

Question 59

How did Goodwin et al. (1969) conduct their experiment into state dependant forgetting ?

Answer 59

Male participants asked to remember a list of words while either drunk or sober. Those drunk = around three times over the UK drink-driving limit. Participants were asked to recall the words 24 hours later Four experimental conditions: 1. Learn sober – Recall sober 2. Learn sober – Recall drunk 3. Learn drunk – Recall drunk 4. Learn drunk – Recall sober

Question 60

What were the findings of Goodwin et al.’s (1969) study into state dependant forgetting?

Answer 60

Accurate recall was lower in the non-matching conditions than in the matching conditions.

Question 61

What conclusion did Goodwin et al. draw from their study into state dependant forgetting?

Answer 61

Retrieval failure occurred because the internal cues available at learning were different from those available at recall, preventing memory access.