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Psychology A - Level > Paper 1 Memory > Flashcards

Paper 1 Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Define memory ?

A

process by which we retain information about events that happened in the past

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2
Q

What are the two stories of memory ?

A

Short term memory - memory of events in the immediate past
Long term memory - memory from events in the distant past

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3
Q

Define capacity and describe the difference in the capacity of STM and LTM ?

A

Measure of how much information can be held in each memory store
STM = limited capacity where as LTM has a potential unlimited capacity

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4
Q

How did Miller measure STM capacity (Procedure, findings and conclusions)?

A

Procedure:
Used serial digit span method
Participants given increasingly long lists of numbers
Asked to recall them in order

Findings:
Most recalled 7 digits
Some could recall only 5, others up to 9

Conclusion:
STM capacity = 7 ± 2 chunks

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5
Q

What is the capacity of STM?

A

STM has a limited capacity, meaning too much information leads to displacement
Displacement occurs when old information is pushed out by new information
Capacity can be increased through chunking
Chunking = grouping information into larger meaningful units

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6
Q

Define duration and describe the difference in the duration of STM and LTM ?

A

Measure of how long a memory lasts before it is no longer available
LTM = potentially unlimited duration where as STM has a limited duration

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7
Q

How can duration be increased in the STM?

A

Duration can be extended through maintenance rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal = repeating information verbally
If rehearsed enough, information transfers to long-term memory (LTM)

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8
Q

How did Peterson & Peterson measure STM duration (Procedure, findings and conclusions)?

A

Procedure:
Participants given a nonsense trigram (e.g., ZFB)
Asked to count backwards in threes (to prevent rehearsal)
Recall tested after different time intervals (3s, 6s, 9s, 12s, 15s, 18s)

Findings:
80% recalled after 3 seconds
Only 10% recalled after 18 seconds

Conclusion:
STM lasts between 20–30 seconds without rehearsal

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9
Q

Define coding and describe the difference in the coding of STM and LTM ?

A

The way information s changed so it can be stored in memory.
STM = acoustically (sounds)
LTM = semantically (meaning)

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10
Q

What did Baddeley’s (1966a) study on STM coding show?

A

Procedure:
Participants divided into four groups
One group heard acoustically similar words, one group heard acoustically dissimilar words, one group heard semantically similar words, last group heard semantically dissimilar words
Asked to immediately recall words in the correct order

Findings:
Participants struggled to recall acoustically similar words (55%)

Conclusion:
STM codes acoustically because similar-sounding words caused confusion

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11
Q

What did Baddeley’s (1966b) study on LTM coding show?

A

Procedure :
Participants were split into 4 groups
Each listened to 10 words from same categories as 1966a
Asked to recall 10 words in the correct order after 20 mins

Findings:
Participants struggled to recall acoustically similar words (55%)

Conclusion:
LTM codes semantically because similar-sounding words caused confusion

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12
Q

Who proposed the Multi-Store Model (MSM) of memory?

A

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)

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13
Q

Describe how the MSM model describes memory

A

Characterises memory as the flow of information through a system in a fixed sequence.

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14
Q

Describe how the MSM model works (can include a diagram)

A

Information from environment enters the sensory register in its raw form and remains here only for a short period unless paid attention to, in which case is transferred to there STM. This memory can then be moved to the LTM by maintenance rehearsal.

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15
Q

What are the different sensory stores in the SR?

A

Touch, taste, vision, hearing and smell

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16
Q

What happens to information in the sensory register if it is not attended to?

A

It quickly decays and is lost.

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17
Q

Explain how information can be forgotten in the STM ?

A

Limited duration = information forgotten by decay
Limited capacity = information forgotten by displacement which is when old information is pushed out by new incoming information

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18
Q

How can decay and displacement be prevented in the STM ?

A

Maintenance rehearsal which allows repetition meaning transferred to the LTM

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19
Q

Explain how information can be forgotten in the LTM ?

A

Decay

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20
Q

How do we recall information from LTM?

A

It is retrieved from LTM back to STM, where it can then be used as output.

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21
Q

What causes retrieval failure in the LTM and explain what is meant by retrival failure ?

A

Retrival failure is caused by there being no suitable retrival cue and is the process by which items stored in the LTM cannot be accessed by the STM

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22
Q

Who proposed the Working Memory Model (WMM), and when?

A

Baddeley & Hitch (1974)

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23
Q

What does the Working Memory Model (WMM) suggest about STM?

A

It suggests that information in STM is processed (worked on) while being stored

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24
Q

How does the WMM differ from previous models of STM?

A

It replaces the idea of a unitary STM with multiple components.

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25
What are the four components of the WMM?
Central executive (CE) Phonological loop (PL) Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS) Episodic buffer (EB)
26
What is the function of the Central Executive (CE) and what two key characteristics of the CE ?
Has a supervisory role, directing information to the three slave systems and collecting responses Two key characteristics : It has a limited capacity It can process information from any sensory system
27
What is the Phonological Loop (PL) responsible for and what are the two sub-components of the Phonological Loop (PL)?
Temporarily storing and processing auditory information Two components : Phonological Store - Holds words you hear for a short time Articulatory control process (inner voice) – Silently rehearses words you hear using sub-vocal repetition
28
What is the Visuo-spatial Sketchpad (VSS) responsible for and what are the two sub-components of the Phonological Loop (PL)?
Temporarily storing and processing visual and spatial information. Two components : Visual cache – Stores visual information Inner scribe – Deals with spatial relations, recording arrangement of objects in the visual field
29
When was the Episodic Buffer (EB) added to the WMM and what is its role?
Added in 2000 by Baddeley Acts as an extra storage system with limited capacity. Integrates information from the CE, PL, VSS, and LTM by recording events (episodes) that are happening
30
What is informational social influence,what type if process is it, when does it occur, and what is its typical outcome?
•Informational social influence (ISI) is based upon the desire to be right and is a cognitive process •It occurs when an individual looks to the majority to give them information about the right way to behave or think • ISI is likely to occur o In unfamiliar situations o In ambiguous situations (i.e. when the right course of action is unclear) • ISI is likely to result in internalisation
31
What is normative social influence, what type of process is it when does it occur, and what is its typical outcome?
• Normative social influence (NSI) is based upon the desire to be liked and is an emotional process • It occurs when an individual changes their behaviours and/or beliefs in order to be liked and accepted by the majority • NSI is likely to occur o In friendship groups • NSI is likely to result in compliance
32
What is a criticism of the MSM regrading the LTM ?
LTM is not a unitary store
33
What are the three different types of LTM
Episodic memory Semantic memory Procedural memory
34
What is episodic memory?
Episodic memory is a long-term memory store for personal experiences
35
What are the three elements of the episodic memory in LTM
Several elements, such as when it happened (time stamped) and the people, places, objects, and emotions involved. Requires conscious effort to recall
36
What is semantic memory?
Semantic memory is a long-term memory store for knowledge
37
How are semantic memories acquired ?
Begin as episodic memories because we acquire knowledge based on experience, gradually transition from episodic to somatic where the memory loosed association to a specific event.
38
How are semantic memories retrieved?
Memories from this store have to be retrieved consciously and with effort
39
What is procedural memory and how do we acquire them ?
Long-term memory store for our knowledge of how to do skills and actions which we acquire through repetition and practice
40
How are procedural memories retrieved?
Memories from this store are usually recalled without having to make a conscious effort
41
What theory explains forgetting in LTM beginning with I and define it ?
Interference theory and is defined as when one memory in LTM disrupts the ability to recall another memory in LTM
42
What are the two types of interference and define each?
Proactive interference - when a old memory interferes with a new Retroactive interference - when a new memory interferes with an old
43
How does similarity affect interference?
The interference is worse when the memories are similar
44
What research demonstrated the effects of similarity on interference?
Research was conducted by McGeoch & McDonald (1931) to demonstrate this
45
What was the procedure of McGeoch & McDonald’s (1931) study into the effects of similarity on interference?
- Participants were asked to learn a list of 10 words until they could recall them with 100% accuracy - They were then divided into six groups - Group 1: Learnt a list of synonyms , Group 2: autonyms, Group 3: Learnt a list of words unrelated to the original words, Group 4: Learnt a list of nonsense syllables (letter combinations without meaning), Group 5: Learnt a list of three-digit numbers, Group 6: Did not learn a new list - Participants were then asked to recall the original list of words
46
What were the findings of McGeoch & McDonald’s (1931) study into the effects of similarity on interference?
Performance depended upon the nature of the second list. Finding that most similar material (the synonyms) produced the worst recall
47
What conclusion did McGeoch & McDonald (1931) draw into the effects of similarity on interference?
McGeoch & McDonald concluded that this demonstrates that interference is strongest when memories are similar
48
What is retrieval failure, and how does it relate to forgetting in LTM?
Form of forgetting when we do not have the necessary cues to access a memory. The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided.
49
What is a cue in content of retrieval theory ?
Acts as a reminder to help access a memory
50
What are the two main forms of retrieval failure?
Context - dependant forgetting State - dependant forgetting
51
Describe the Encoding specificity principle developed by Tulving ?
- Reviewed research into retrieval failure - Consistent pattern - if a cue is to help recall then it needs to be present during encoding + retrieval. If cues available at encoding and retrieval = different or absent on retrieval = forgetting. This is known as the ESP
52
Describe the experiment conducted by Tulving and Pearlstone into ESP ?
Participants learn 48 words which are in 12 categories Each word = category + word 2 recall conditions included : 1. Cues given in the form of category names = cued recall, 2. Not given any cues = free recall Found that those using free recall remembered 40% words, those who used cue recall = 60%
53
What is context-dependent forgetting?
Occurs when external cues available at the time of learning are not available at the time of retrieval, making memory recall less effective.
54
How did Godden & Baddeley (1975) conduct their experiment into context-dependent forgetting ?
- Scuba diver participants learned a list of words either on land or underwater - This creates four experimental conditions : 1. Learn on land – Recall on land 2. Learn on land – Recall underwater 3. Learn underwater – Recall underwater 4. Learn underwater – Recall on land
55
What were the findings of Godden & Baddeley’s (1975) study about context-dependent forgetting?
Accurate recall was lower in the non-matching conditions than in the matching conditions.
56
What conclusion did Godden & Baddeley draw from their study about context dependant forgetting?
Concluded that retrieval failure occurred because the external cues available at learning were different from those available at recall, preventing memory access
57
What is state-dependent forgetting?
Occurs when internal cues available at the time of learning are not available at the time of retrieval, making memory recall less effective
58
How did Goodwin et al. (1969) conduct their experiment into state dependant forgetting ?
Male participants asked to remember a list of words while either drunk or sober. Those drunk = around three times over the UK drink-driving limit. Participants were asked to recall the words 24 hours later Four experimental conditions: 1. Learn sober – Recall sober 2. Learn sober – Recall drunk 3. Learn drunk – Recall drunk 4. Learn drunk – Recall sober
59
What were the findings of Goodwin et al.’s (1969) study into state dependant forgetting?
Accurate recall was lower in the non-matching conditions than in the matching conditions.
60
What conclusion did Goodwin et al. draw from their study into state dependant forgetting?
Retrieval failure occurred because the internal cues available at learning were different from those available at recall, preventing memory access.
61
What is eyewitness testimony (EWT)?
Eyewitness testimony (EWT) is the evidence provided in court by a person who witnessed a crime, with a view to identifying the perpetrator of the crime.
62
What are two factors that can affect the accuracy of EWT?
Misleading information and anxiety
63
What are two factors that can affect the accuracy of EWT?
Misleading information and anxiety
64
What is misleading information?
Misleading information is information that alters an eyewitnesses’ memory of a crime
65
What are two examples of misleading information?
Leading questions and post-event discussion
66
What is a leading question?
A leading question is a question which, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer
67
What was the procedure of Loftus & Palmer (1974)?
Showed 45 students seven films of different road traffic accidents and gave them a questionnaire with one critical question using different verbs “hit”, “smashed”, “collided”, “bumped”, or “contacted”.
68
What were the findings of Loftus & Palmer (1974)?
The group given the word “smashed” gave the highest speed estimate (average 40.8mph) whereas the group given the word “contacted” gave the lowest speed estimate (average 31.8mph).
69
What did Loftus & Palmer (1974) conclude?
Loftus & Palmer concluded that leading questions can have a significant impact on the accuracy of EWT
70
What is post-event discussion (PED)?
Post-event discussion (PED) occurs when there is more than one eyewitness and they discuss what they saw. This may influence the accuracy of each individual’s recall of the crime.
71
What was the procedure of Gabbert et al. (2003)?
Studied participants in pairs who watched videos of the same crime from different angles. Some discussed what they saw before individually completing a recall test
72
What were the findings of Gabbert et al. (2003)?
71% of participants in the discussion group recalled aspects of the crime that they had not seen in the video but had picked up in the discussion.
73
What did Gabbert et al. (2003) conclude?
Gabbert et al. concluded that post-event discussion can have a significant impact on the accuracy of EWT
74
What is the main issue in research about anxiety and eyewitness testimony (EWT)?
Research in this area is contradictory
75
What are the two types of evidence regarding anxiety's impact on EWT?
There is evidence that anxiety has a negative effect on the accuracy of EWT. There is also evidence that anxiety has a positive effect on the accuracy of EWT.
76
What was the aim of Johnson & Scott's (1976) study?
To investigate whether anxiety affects the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT).
77
What was the procedure of Johnson & Scott's (1976) study into effect of eyewitness testimony ?
Participants sat in a waiting room and overheard a discussion from the next room. They were placed in one of two conditions: in the low-anxiety condition, they heard a calm conversation about equipment failure, and a man walked through carrying a pen with grease on his hands; in the high-anxiety condition, they heard a heated argument with breaking glass, and a man walked through carrying a knife with blood on his hands. Afterwards, all participants were asked to identify the man from 50 photographs
78
What were the findings of Johnson & Scott's (1976) study into effect of eyewitness testimony ?
49% in the low-anxiety condition correctly identified the man. 33% in the high-anxiety condition correctly identified the man.
79
What is the weapon focus effect suggested by Johnson & Scott?
When a weapon is present, the eyewitness will concentrate on the weapon, not on the appearance of the perpetrator.
80
What was the procedure did Christianson & Hubinette (1993) conduct into the effect of eyewitness testimony?
They questioned 58 real witnesses to bank robberies in Sweden. There were two groups of victims - victims who had been directly threatened (high-anxiety) Bystanders (low-anxiety). Interviews then took place 4 – 15 months after the robberies took place.
81
What were the findings and conclusion of Christianson & Hubinette (1993) study into effect of eyewitness testimony ?
All witnesses generally showed good recall for details of the robbery, but the most anxious (victims) had the best recall. Anxiety therefore has a positive effect on the accuracy of EWT
82
Who proposed a theory to explain contradictions in EWT and anxiety research and what was the theory ?
Deffenbacher (1983), theory was the Yerkes-Dodson Law
83
What does the Yerkes-Dodson Law suggest about anxiety and performance and how does this relate to EWT accuracy?
Performance improves with increases in anxiety up to an optimal point, and then declines with any further increases in anxiety. Small to medium increases in anxiety = positive effect on EWT accuracy High increases in anxiety = negative effect on EWT accuracy
84
According to Deffenbacher, why do studies on anxiety and EWT produce different results?
Studies that find a positive effect are likely measuring anxiety levels in the first half of the Yerkes-Dodson curve. Studies that find a negative effect are likely measuring anxiety levels in the second half of the curve.
85
Who developed the cognitive interview and why?
Geiselman et al. (1984) developed the cognitive interview (CI) to improve the accuracy of EWT.
86
What is the cognitive interview based on?
It is based upon psychological principles concerning effective memory recall.
87
What are the four components of the cognitive interview?
Mental reinstatement of original context Report everything Change order Change perspective
88
What does the interviewer do in the mental reinstatement of original context in the cognitive interview and why?
The interviewer encourages the interviewee to mentally recreate both the physical and psychological environment of the original incident. By mentally recreating the physical and psychological environment of the original incident, the interviewee may be provided with cues to assist with retrieval.
89
What is the interviewee encouraged to do in the report everything component in the cognitive interview and why ?
The interviewer encourages the interviewee to report every detail of the incident without leaving anything out even if considered insignificant or irrelevant. Details reported by the interviewee could act as cues to assist with retrieval
90
What does the change order component involve in the cognitive interview and why?
The interviewer asks the interviewee to recall the incident in a different order to the original sequence. Aim is to prevent schemas from influencing recall
91
What happens in the change perspective component in the cognitive interview and why ?
The interviewer asks the interviewee to recall the incident from multiple perspectives eg. ask them to recall the incident from the perspective of another eyewitness present at the time. Aim to prevent schemes from influencing recall

Psychology A - Level (13 decks)

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