Paper 2 - Research Methods Flashcards
1
Q
Reliability Definition
A
The extent to which a test produces a consistent result
2
Q
Validity Defenition
A
The extent to which a test produces legitimate results
3
Q
Internal Validity Defintion
A
The extent to which a test measures what it set out to measure
If a test measures what it set out to measure, the test has high internal validity
4
Q
What are the two types of External Validity and define both?
A
Ecological validity is the extent to which findings can be generalised to real life settings
Temporal validity is the extent to which findings can be generalised to other times
5
Q
External Validity Defintion
A
Extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the research setting
6
Q
Variables Definition
A
Anything open to change
7
Q
What is an IV ?
A
The variable that the researcher manipulates
Made up of two or more conditions
8
Q
What is the DV ?
A
The variable the researcher measures to see if it has changed after the IV has been manipulated
9
Q
What is an EV (Extraneous variables)
A
Variables other than the IV that could affect the DV if not controlled
10
Q
What is a confounding variable ?
A
Uncontrolled extraneous variables that affect the DV and therefore confuse results
11
Q
What is Operationalisation and which variables should be operationalised ?
A
Operationalisation means clearly defining them so they can be manipulated
The IV is operationalised by expressing the conditions that are going to be tested
The DV is operationalised by expressing exactly what it is that will be measured
12
Q
Extraneous Variables - Participant variables definition and control
A
Definition : Characteristics of participants eg. age, IQ, gender etc.
Only act as an extraneous variables when an independent groups experimental design is used and if they are relevant to the DV
Control : Random allocation to conditions of the IV. Can be achieved using lottery method or random number generator
13
Q
Extraneous Variables - Situational variables definition and control
A
Definition : Features of the environment that can affect the results of the experiment eg. noise, temperature etc.
Only act as extraneous variables if they are relevant to the DV
Control : Standardisation = when procedures and instructions are standardised (kept the same) this means all participants should be subject to the same environmental conditions
14
Q
Extraneous Variables - Order variables definition and control
A
Definition : Only act as an extraneous variable when a repeated measures experimental design is used. Participants may underperform in the second condition due to tiredness/boredom or over perform due to practice
Control : Counterbalancing - half of the participants experience condition A followed by condition B and the other half of the participants experience condition B followed by condition A
15
Q
Extraneous Variables - Demand variables definition and control
A
Definition : cues or signals that enable participants to guess the aim of the experiment. Participants may change behaviour and act unnaturally. Acting in a way that they think is expected to please the researcher or deliberately act in a way that they think is unexpected to sabotage the results. More likely to be a problem when a repeated measures design is used
Control : Independent Group design or single blind study where patients are unaware of what condition of IV they are experiencing
16
Q
Extraneous Variables - Investigator variables definition and control
A
Definition : Any influence of the researcher’s characteristics or behaviours on the research outcome eg. age, communication style, selection of patients and design of investigation
Control : Double blind trial both the participant and the researcher that interacts with them are unaware of the research aims and which condition of the IV the participant is experiencing. Randomisation use of chance to reduce the researcher’s influence on the design of the investigation
17
Q
What is the aim in a psychological investigation?
A
The aim is the intended purpose of a psychological investigation, outlining what the researcher is trying to discover.
18
Q
What is a hypothesis?
A
A hypothesis is a statement that predicts the outcome of a psychological investigation.
19
Q
What are the two main types of hypotheses and define both?
A
Alternative hypothesis : A statement that predicts a difference or correlation in results.
Null hypothesis : A statement that predicts no difference or correlation in results.
20
Q
How do researchers choose between alternative and null hypotheses?
A
If a significant result is found then accept alternative hypothesis and if no significant result is found then accept null hypothesis.
21
Q
What are the two types of alternative hypotheses and define both?
A
Directional alternative hypothesis : states the direction of the predicted difference or correlation in results.
Non-directional alternative hypothesis : does not state the direction of the predicted difference or correlation in results.
22
Q
What is the target population ?
A
The target population is the population of individuals that the researcher is interested in
23
Q
What does it mean if the sample is representative ?
A
It is an accurate reflection of the target population and the results can be generalised to the target population
24
Q
What does it mean if the sample is unrepresentative ?
A
It is not an accurate reflection of the target population so therefore biased
25
What is the definition of Opportunity Sampling ?
Participants are selected based upon being easily available at the time of the study.
26
Give a strength of Opportunity Sampling ?
Quick and easy. The researcher just uses the first suitable participants they can find.
27
Give a limitation of Opportunity Sampling ?
Likely to create a biased sample, as it’s drawn from a small part of the target population, making results unlikely to generalise to target population.
28
What is the definition of Volunteer Sampling ?
Participants volunteer to take part by responding to an advertisement placed in a location visible to the target population.
29
Give a strength of Volunteer Sampling ?
Can give access to a wide variety of participants depending on the advertisement location, potentially making the sample more representative.
30
Give a limitation of Volunteer Sampling ?
Likely to create a biased sample due to volunteer bias. Participants may be highly motivated or have extra time. This means results are unlikely to generalise to the target population.
31
What is the definition of Random Sampling ?
Participants are selected using a random number technique (e.g., lottery method or random number generator) from the entire target population.
32
Give a strength of Random Sampling ?
Likely to create an unbiased sample since every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Results are likely to generalise to target population.
33
Give a limitation of Random Sampling ?
Can still result in a biased sample if the sample size is too small. It also requires generating a list of all population members, which can be time-consuming.
34
What is the definition of Systematic Sampling ?
Participants are selected using a predetermined system, such as every nth member from a list of the target population.
35
Give a strength of Systematic Sampling ?
Likely to create an unbiased sample because participants are selected using an objective system, increasing generalisation of target population.
36
Give a weakness of Systematic Sampling ?
Not truly unbiased unless the numerical interval is selected randomly.
37
What is the definition of Stratified Sampling ?
Subgroups (strata) within the population are identified, and participants are randomly selected from each subgroup in proportion to their representation in the target population.
38
Give a strength of Systematic Sampling ?
Likely to create an unbiased sample with proportional and random representation of subgroups, improving generalisation of target population.
39
Give a limitation of Systematic Sampling ?
Time-consuming as the researcher must identify subgroups and then randomly select participants from each group.
40
What are ethical issues in psychology research?
Conflicts between the rights of participants and the researcher’s need to conduct meaningful research.
41
Name the four major ethical issues in psychological research.
Informed consent, deception, protection from harm, and privacy & confidentiality.
42
Name the four major ethical issues in psychological research.
Informed consent, deception, protection from harm, and privacy & confidentiality.
43
What guidelines help address ethical issues in psychology research?
The British Psychological Society (BPS) provides a set of ethical guidelines
44
What can happen if researchers fail to follow ethical guidelines?
Researchers may face disbarment from professional organizations like the BPS.
45
What is informed consent
Making the participants aware of the researchers aims, procedures, rights and how data will be used. So they can make an informed decision on if they want to participate.
46
What is the downside of obtaining informed consent for researchers?
It can lead to demand characteristics, which might invalidate the study’s findings.
47
What is the guidance of how to deal with informed consent ?
- Consent form with information that might affect decision to take part
- Under 16 need parental consent
48
Name and Explain the 3 other ways consent can be given if not using direct informed consent?
With the approval of an ethics committee, researchers can use alternative methods like
Presumptive : similar group of people is asked how they would feel about participating in a study, and their consent is presumed to apply to the actual participants.
Prior general : When participants agree to be deceived but are not told how or when the deception will occur.
Retrospective consent : When participants are asked for their consent during debriefing after they have already taken part in the study
49
What is deception ?
Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants so participants cannot given informed consent.
50
What is the guidance on how to deal with deception ?
- Full debrief after the study where they are informed on the true aims and any other details they were not supplied with
- They should also be told what their data will be used for, and given the right to withdraw their data if they wish
51
Who needs to approve the need for deception to be used in an investigation ?
An ethics committee who will weigh up the benefits of the study against the costs to the participants (cost-benefit judgment)
52
What does protection of harm mean ?
Participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives and should be protected from physical and psychological harm
53
What is the unpredictable element of protection from harm
Sometimes difficult to predict the outcome of certain procedures, and it is therefore difficult to guarantee protection from harm and important questions may sometimes cause distress.
54
What is the guidance on how to deal with protection from harm ?
Participants should be reminded of the fact that they have the right to withdraw from the study at any point
and they should be given a full debrief after the study
If they have been subject to psychological harm, they may require counselling which the researcher should provide
55
What is Privacy and Confidentially in the context of ethical issues ?
Right to control the flow of information about themselves, this is the right to privacy
Confidentiality should always be protected, confidentiality is the right to have any personal information (such as name, age etc.) protected
56
What is the difficulty around Privacy and confidentiality when studying participants without their awareness ?
May be difficult to avoid an invasion of privacy when studying participants without their awareness, studying participants without their awareness avoids demand characteristics, which can validate findings
57
What is the guidance on how to deal with maintaining privacy and confidentiality ?
Participants should not be studied without their awareness unless they are in a public place and the Data Protection Act makes confidentiality a legal right. If personal details are held, these must be protected. However it is more usual for researchers to not record any personal details and maintain anonymity
58
What is quantitive data ?
Numerical Data
59
What are the strengths of quantative data and how does it impact conclusions?
Easy to analyse using descriptive and inferential data therefore conclusions can be objective and unbiased
60
What are the limitations of quantative data and how does it impact conclusions?
Lacks detail and oversimplifies reality so therefore conclusions lack external validity
61
What is qualitative data ?
Non numerical data
62
What are the strengths of qualitative data and how does it impact conclusions?
Rich in detail and provides a meaningful insight into reality. Conclusions therefore likely to be meaningful and have high external validity.
63
What are the limitations of qualitative data and how does it impact conclusions?
Difficult to analyse and draw conclusions. As a result, conclusions tend to rely on subjective interpretations. These are subject to bias, particularly if the researcher has preconceptions about what they are expecting to find.
64
What is Primary Data ?
Data that is collected directly from first-hand experience and is specifically related to the aims and hypotheses of the study. The data did not exist before the study.
65
What are the strengths of primary data ?
The researcher has control over the data and can make sure that it fits the aims and hypotheses of the study
66
What are the limitations of primary data ?
Collecting primary data is a lengthy and expensive process
67
What is secondary data ?
Data that is collected for a purpose other than the current investigation, data perviously collected from a previous study and can use meta-analysis data.
68
What are the strengths of secondary data ?
It is quicker and cheaper to access someone else’s data
69
What are the limitations of secondary data ?
The researcher has no control over the data. It may not fit the aims and hypotheses of the study.
70
What do descriptive statistics analyze?
Quantitative data.
71
What are the two categories of descriptive statistics?
Measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion.
72
What is a strength of the mean?
It is the most sensitive measure of central tendency because it includes all values in the calculation.
73
What is a limitation of the mean?
It is easily distorted by extreme values
74
What is a strength of the median?
It is not distorted by extreme values.
75
What is a limitation of the median?
It is less sensitive than the mean since not all values are included in the calculation.
76
What is a strength of the mode?
It is not affected by extreme values.
77
What is a limitation of the mode?
Not a useful way of describing data if all the values in the data set are different.
78
What is a strength of the range?
It is easy to calculate.
79
What is a limitation of the range?
It can be distorted by extreme values.
80
What does the standard deviation measure?
The average distance of each data point from the mean.
81
What is a strength of the standard deviation?
It includes all values, making it the most sensitive measure of dispersion.
82
What is a limitation of the standard deviation?
It can be distorted by extreme values.
83
Why are graphs used in data analysis?
To represent quantitative data visually and reveal patterns.
84
What type of data does a bar chart present and describe a bar chart ?
• Used to present discrete data
• Discrete data is data that is not continuous
• It is divided into categories that have no particular order
• A space is left between each bar to represent the lack of continuity
• The IV is placed on the x-axis
• The DV is placed on the y-axis
85
What type of data does a histogram present and describe a histogram?
• Used to present continuous data
• Continuous data is divided into categories that do have a particular order
• The bars touch to represent continuity
• The IV is placed on the x-axis
• The DV is placed on the y-axis
86
What type of data does a scattergram present and describe a scattergram?
• Used to present a correlation
• One variable presented on x-axis
• One variable presented on y-axis
• Point plotted where two variables meet
• Pattern of plotted points reveals type of correlation (positive, negative or zero)
87
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale trial run of a study conducted before the main study.
88
What is the purpose of a pilot study?
The purpose of a pilot study is to determine whether the research design works effectively and to identify areas for improvement.
89
Why is it beneficial for researchers to conduct a pilot study?
By testing the design on a small number of participants, researchers can identify and adjust any issues without investing significant time or money.
90
Are the results of the pilot study important to the researcher?
No, the results of a pilot study are not the primary focus. The main goal is to fine-tune the research design for the main study.
91
What are the main sections of a scientific report ?
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
References
92
What is the purpose of the abstract in a scientific report?
Summarises the study, including: aim and hypotheses, procedure, results, conclusions
It provides enough information to decide whether the full report is worth reading.
93
What is included in the introduction of a scientific report?
A review of existing theories and research.
A logical progression that leads to the study being conducted.
A clear statement of the aim and hypotheses (alternative and null).
94
What is the primary purpose of the method section in a scientific report?
The method section outlines what was done in enough detail for the study to be replicated.
95
What are the components of the method section?
Method and Design: Description of design and method used
Sample: Number of participants, demographics (e.g., age, gender), and sampling method.
Apparatus/Materials: Description of materials used (e.g., questionnaires).
Procedure: Order of events and details of the testing environment.
Ethics: Ethical issues and how they were addressed.
96
What does the results section outline in a scientific report?
For quantitative research:
Descriptive statistics (central tendency, dispersion, tables, and graphs).
Inferential statistics (test type, significance level, calculated and critical values, hypothesis decision).
For qualitative research:
Themes and quotes.
97
What does the discussion section of a scientific report include?
Summary of results (brief report and explanation).
Relationship to previous research.
Consideration of the methodology (criticisms and improvements).
Implications for theory and real-world applications.
Suggestions for future research.
98
How do you construct a reference of a book?
Author's surname, initial(s). (Year of publication). Title of book. Place of publication. Publisher
99
What is the purpose of the references section in a scientific report?
The references section provides full details of journal articles or books mentioned, enabling readers to:
Track down sources.
Acknowledge other researchers and their ideas.
This section helps avoid plagiarism.
100
What are the four main types of experiments?
Laboratory experiment
Field experiment
Natural experiment
Quasi-experiment
101
What is a laboratory experiment?
An experiment conducted in a controlled laboratory setting where the researcher manipulates the IV and measures the DV. Participants are aware they are being tested.
102
What are the strengths of laboratory experiments?
Easier to control extraneous variables = high internal validity and the ability to establish cause and effect = high internal validity
Easier to replicate = researchers establish external reliability.
103
What are the limitations of laboratory experiments?
Conducted in an artificial environment = low ecological validity.
Participants are aware of being tested, increasing the likelihood of demand characteristics acting as extraneous variables.
104
What is a field experiment?
An experiment conducted in a natural setting (e.g., a school or hospital) where the researcher manipulates the IV and measures the DV. Participants may not be aware they are being tested.
105
What are the strengths of field experiments?
Conducted in a natural environment = high ecological validity.
Participants often unaware of being tested, reducing demand characteristics as extraneous variables.
106
What are the limitations of field experiments?
Difficult to control extraneous variables, reducing internal validity and the ability to establish cause and effect.
Hard to replicate = difficult to establish external reliability.
107
What is a natural experiment?
An experiment where the researcher does not manipulate the IV directly but uses naturally occurring differences. The DV is usually measured in a laboratory, and participants are typically aware they are being tested.
108
What are the strengths of natural experiments?
Study of naturally occurring situations = increases ecological validity.
109
What are the limitations of natural experiments?
Lack of control over the IV = hard to control extraneous variables = reducing internal validity and the ability to establish cause and effect.
Naturally occurring situations = rare = limiting research opportunities.
110
What is a quasi-experiment?
An experiment where the IV is based on an existing difference between people (e.g., gender, age, psychological disorder). The DV is usually measured in a laboratory, and participants are typically aware they are being tested.
111
What are the strengths of quasi-experiments?
Study of naturally occurring situations = increases ecological validity
112
What are the limitations of quasi-experiments?
Lack of control over the IV = hard to control extraneous variables = reduced internal validity and the ability to establish cause and effect.
Participants cannot be randomly assigned to conditions = increasing the likelihood of participant variables acting as extraneous variables.
113
What is a repeated measures design?
The same group of participants are tested in all conditions of the independent variable (IV).
114
What are the strengths of repeated measures design?
- Participant variables do not act as an extraneous variable, as the same participants are used in each condition.
- Fewer participants are required compared to an independent groups design for the same amount of data.
115
What are the limitations of repeated measures design?
- Order effects may act as an extraneous variable (e.g., underperformance due to tiredness/boredom or overperformance due to practice).
- Demand characteristics = more likely, as participants can guess the aim of the experiment when taking part in all conditions.
116
What is an independent groups design?
A different group of participants are tested in each condition of the independent variable (IV).
117
What are the strengths of independent groups design?
- Order effects do not act as an extraneous variable, as participants experience only one condition.
- Demand characteristics = less likely, as participants are less likely to guess the aim of the experiment.
118
What are the limitations of independent groups design?
- Participant variables act as an extraneous variable since different participants are in each condition.
- More participants required compared to repeated measures design for the same amount of data.
119
What is a matched pairs design?
Participants are matched into pairs based on a variable relevant to the dependent variable (e.g., age). One member of each pair is tested in each condition of the IV.
120
What are the strengths of matched pairs design?
- Participant variables = less likely to act as an extraneous variable due to matching.
- Order effects do not act as an extraneous variable, as participants experience only one condition.
- Demand characteristics = less likely, as participants are less likely to guess the aim of the experiment.
121
What are the limitations of matched pairs design?
- Matching participants can be time-consuming and expensive.
- Matching is limited to known variables, so unknown participant variables might still act as extraneous variables.
122
What are self-report techniques and what are the two types?
Methods where participants report their own experiences.
Questionnaire and Interview
123
What are questionnaires and what type of questions do they include?
A set of pre-determined questions used to assess the dependent variable (DV).
Closed questions (fixed responses) & Open questions (free responses).
124
What kind of data do closed questions collect and describe the 3 types of closed questions?
Provides quantitative data, 3 types =
Likert scales: The respondent indicates their agreement with a statement using a scale.
Rating scales: The respondent identifies a numerical value that represents their strength of feeling about a particular topic.
Fixed-choice option: The respondent chooses one (or more) of the options provided.
125
What kind of data do open questions collect and define open questions ?
Questions for which there are no fixed responses and participants can answer as they please
Produce qualitative (non-numerical) data
126
What are two strengths of questionnaires?
Quick & cheap data collection.
Anonymity can increase honesty → High internal validity.
127
What are two limitations of questionnaires?
Sample bias (only literate & willing participants).
Social desirability bias (if not anonymous).
128
What are the three types of interviews and describe each?
Structured interview : Questions = pre-determined, same for all interviewees
Unstructured interview: Questions vary depending upon the interviewee’s responses, interview = more like a conversation
Semi-structured interview: structured and unstructured questions
129
What are the strengths & weaknesses of structured interviews?
Reliable & easy to repeat as standardised questions
Limited detail in responses, May miss out on information that is not revealed by the pre-determined questions.
130
What are the strengths & weaknesses of unstructured interviews?
Detailed responses as interviewer can probe the interviewee .
Hard to repeat because questions vary → Low reliability.
Requires skilled interviewers (expensive).
131
What is a key strength and weakness of interviews?
Allows clarifications between interviewer & participant
Face-to-face nature may reduce willingness to share personal info → Low internal validity
132
What are five things to avoid when writing questionnaire/interview questions?
Jargon (complex terms).
Emotive language (biased wording).
Leading questions (suggest a certain answer).
Double-barrelled questions (two-in-one).
Double negatives (confusing phrasing).
133
What are filler questions used for?
To distract participants from the study's true aim = reduce demand characteristics.
134
How can researchers improve interview quality?
Record interviews (audio/video over note-taking).
Build rapport (quiet setting = avoid being interrupted, neutral intro questions = make participant feel conformable and relaxed)
135
What is the description of naturalistic and controlled observation?
NATURALISTIC : No variables =controlled or manipulated by the researcher
Behaviour often observed in a natural setting
CONTROLLED : Variables = controlled and manipulated by the researcher
Behaviour often observed in a controlled laboratory setting
136
What are the strengths of naturalistic observation?
Behaviour is likely to be natural so high ecological and findings can be generalised to real-life settings.
137
What are the limitations of naturalistic observation?
Extraneous variables cannot be controlled to prevent them from becoming confounding variables. So cause and effect cannot be established and internal validity is low.
138
What are the strengths of controlled observation?
Extraneous variables = controlled to prevent them from becoming confounding variables. So cause and effect can be established and internal validity is high.
139
What are the limitations of controlled observation?
Behaviour = likely to be unnatural. So low ecological validity and findings cannot be generalised to real-life settings.
140
What is the description of overt and covert observation?
OVERT : Participants = aware that being observed by a researcher
COVERT : Participants = unaware being observed by a researcher
141
What are the strengths of overt observation?
Less likely to be ethical issues as participants give their consent to be observed
142
What are the limitations of overt observation?
Behaviour = likely to be unnatural because participants know that they are being observed. So low ecological validity and findings cannot be generalised to real-life settings
143
What are the strengths of covert observation?
Behaviour = likely to be natural because participants do not know that they are being observed. So high ecological validity and findings can be generalised to real-life settings.
144
What are the limitations of covert observation?
Ethical issues as participants have not given their consent to be observed.
145
What is the description of participant and non participant observation?
PARTICIPANT: Researcher becomes a member of the group that they are observing
NON -PARTICIPANT: Researcher remains outside of the group that they are observing
146
What are the strengths of participant observation?
Researcher may pick up on small details that would otherwise be missed
147
What are the limitations of participant observation?
Greater risk of observer bias as the researcher may become subjective and allow their own opinions to influence their observations. So low internal validity
148
What are the strengths of non-participant observation?
Less risk of observer bias as the researcher is more likely to remain objective and not allow their own opinions to influence their observations. So high internal validity
149
What are the limitations of non-participant observation?
Researcher may miss small details
