Paper 1: Psychopathology

Question 1

What are the 4 definitions of abnormality?

Answer 1

1. Statistical Infrequency
2. Deviation from Social Norms
3. Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
4. Failure to Function Adequately

Question 2

Outline the statistical infrequency definition of abnormality.

Answer 2

This definition considers behaviors that are statistically rare or uncommon as abnormal.

Question 3

Outline the deviation from social norms definition of abnormality.

Answer 3

This definition identifies abnormality based on behaviors that violate societal norms or expectations.

Question 4

Outline the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality.

Answer 4

This definition focuses on the absence of certain criteria for optimal psychological well-being.

Question 5

Outline the failure to function adequately definition of abnormality.

Answer 5

This definition considers individuals abnormal if they cannot perform daily activities or cope with life demands.

Question 6

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the failure to function adequately definition of abnormality?

Answer 6

(+) provides a checklist to assess whether someone is functioning.
(-) It doesn’t consider what is functioning normally for one person may not be the same for others.
(-) People can function normally with mental illness
(-) Could be cultural bias

Question 7

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality?

Answer 7

(+) it provides goals people can meet to achieve ideal mental health.
(-) some of the criteria are vague and difficult to assess
(-) Criteria is over-demanding – few people would meet all of it so lots could be seen as abnormal.
(-) Could be Cultural Bias

Question 8

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the deviation from social norms definition of abnormality?

Answer 8

(-) An issue is that social attitudes and norms change over time.
(+) Much of our behaviour is context specific. This definition considers the fact that behaviour can be normal in one situation and abnormal in others.
(-) Social Deviancy isn’t always a bad thing so shouldn’t always be seen as abnormal.
(-) Could be cultural bias.

Question 9

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the statistical infrequency definition of abnormality?

Answer 9

(-) It fails to distinguish between desirable and non-desirable behaviours.
(+) There is an objective quantitative cut off point so less subjective in deciding abnormality
(-) One issue is that some mental illnesses actually aren’t that statistically rare.
(-) Could be culturally biased

Question 10

What is OCD?

Answer 10

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a mental health condition characterized by persistent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions).

Question 11

What are behavioural characteristics of OCD?

Answer 11

Hinders Everyday functioning – having obsessions & compulsions makes it difficult to perform everyday tasks.
Social Impairment – Anxiety levels can make it difficult to conduct meaningful relationships.
Repetitive – Sufferers feel compelled to repeat behaviours

Question 12

What are cognitive characteristics of OCD?

Answer 12

Obsessive Thinking – this is where most sufferers have reoccurring unpleasant thoughts.
Realisation of Inappropriateness – most sufferers understand their thoughts are inappropriate.
Attentional bias – attention tends to be focused on anxiety-generating stimuli.

Question 13

What are emotional characteristics of OCD?

Answer 13

Extreme anxiety felt – forbidden ideas create high levels of anxiety.
Distress – The recognition that compulsive behaviours cannot be controlled can lead to distress.
Depression – OCD is often accompanied by low mood and lack of enjoyment in activities.

Question 14

Explain what obsessions and compulsions are.

Answer 14

Obsessions are intrusive thoughts that cause anxiety, while compulsions are repetitive behaviors performed to reduce that anxiety.

Question 15

What is the cycle of OCD?

Answer 15

The cycle of OCD involves obsessions leading to anxiety, which triggers compulsions that temporarily relieve the anxiety, reinforcing the cycle.

Obsessive thought ➡️Anxiety➡️Compulsive Behaviour➡️Temporary relief

Question 16

What are the two possible explanations of OCD?

Answer 16

1. Genetic Explanation
2. Neural Explanation (including neurotransmitters and brain abnormalities)

Question 17

Outline the genetic explanation of OCD.

Answer 17

This argues that OCD has been inherited through genetic transmission from biological parent to child.

Research often examines CONCORDANCE RATES from family studies (e.g twins).

Question 18

What are some of the weaknesses of twin study concordance rates?

Answer 18

(-) the rates aren’t 100% for MZ twins so therefore genetics cannot totally contribute to the development of OCD
(-) It is difficult to separate the effects of genetics from the effects of the environment.
(-) a higher concordance rate in MZ twins could be cause by their more similar environment.

Question 19

Outline the Nestadt concordance rates for OCD (2000) study into twins with OCD.

Answer 19

Nestadt (2000) found concordance rates of monozygotic (MZ) twins was 68% and of dizygotic twins (DZ) was 31%.

Question 20

What is the gene linked with OCD as researched by Ozaki (2003)?

Answer 20

SERT (or 5-HTT)

Question 21

What is the neural explanation of OCD related to neurotransmitters?

Answer 21

OCD could be caused by low levels of neurotransmitters like SEROTONIN.
This would affect the transfer of messages from one neuron to the other at the synapse as less neurotransmitters means less signals sent on.

Question 22

Explain some of the weaknesses of the biological explanations of OCD.

Answer 22

(-) it is likely a combination of environment and biological factors.
(-) there are different subtypes of OCD so a single cause is unlikely.
(-) children often show dissimilar OCD symptoms to their parents which weakens the genetic explanation.

Question 23

Explain what depression is.

Answer 23

An affective (mood) disorder is characterised by feelings of sadness and withdrawal from people.

Can be mild to severe and can involve inability to make decisions and inability to perform simple tasks.

Question 24

Explain the cognitive characteristics of depression.

Answer 24

Reduced Concentration

Thoughts of death

Poor Memory

Focus on Negative

Question 25

Explain the emotional characteristics of depression.

Answer 25

Loss of pleasure – people with depression feel less interest in things they used to enjoy. Worthlessness – People with depression feel less worth and feelings of guilt. Depressed Mood – Feelings of sadness and hopelessness.

Question 26

Explain the behavioural characteristics of depression.

Answer 26

Loss of Energy Social Impairment Poor Personal Hygiene Sleep Pattern Disturbance

Question 27

What is the cause of depression according to the cognitive approach?

Answer 27

Depression is caused by irrational, overly pessimistic and faulty thinking styles.

Question 28

According to Beck's cognitive vulnerability theory what are the 3 mechanisms responsible for depression?

Answer 28

The three mechanisms are negative self-schema, errors in logic, and the cognitive triad.

Question 29

Give some examples of cognitive errors in logic that people with depression have.

Answer 29

1. Arbitrary Inference 2. Selective Abstraction (focusing on negative) 3. Magnification and Minimisation 4. Personalization 5. Dichotomous Thinking (black and white thinking)

Question 30

Explain what is meant by a negative self schema.

Answer 30

They possess a set of beliefs and expectations about themselves that are essentially negative and pessimistic. It makes it difficult to process anything positive about themselves.

Question 31

Explain what the cognitive triad is.

Answer 31

The cognitive triad consists of negative views about the self, the world, and the future.

Question 32

What is the main criticism of the cognitive approach to explaining depression?

Answer 32

Whether negative thinking is a cause OR a symptom of depression. I.e do negative thoughts cause depression or does depression cause negative thinking?

Question 33

Explain Ellis's ABC model.

Answer 33

A – Activating event B – Belief about event C – Consequences (e.g if irrational beliefs held then unhealthy emotions and behaviour)

Question 34

Explain what 'mustabatory thinking' is.

Answer 34

'Mustabatory thinking' refers to the belief that certain things must happen for an individual to be happy.

Question 35

Describe a prospective study of depression, examining if negative thinking causes depression.

Answer 35

Grazioli & Terry (2000) - prospective study - Pregnant women with high levels of negative thinking (assessed before they gave birth) were more likely to suffer post-natal depression

Question 36

What are some of the evaluation points for the cognitive approach to explaining depression?

Answer 36

(-) negative thinking could be a symptom rather than the cause of depression. (+) there are practical applications to the explanation in the form of CBT. (-) it may not be all about thinking as there is some support for biological explanations of depression (e.g serotonin/genetics)

Question 37

What is the name of the treatment for Depression?

Answer 37

CBT - cognitive behavioural therapy

Question 38

What are the two CBT therapies we have looked at (developed by Beck and Ellis)?

Answer 38

Cognitive Therapy (CT) – Beck Rational Emotive behaviour Therapy (REBT) - Ellis

Question 39

What are the cognitive and behavioural elements of CBT for depression?

Answer 39

Cognitive - Identifying and replacing negative/ irrational thoughts with more realistic ones. Behaviourist - Encouraging the client to behave in ways they may have avoided doing, because of held beliefs, through setting challenges.

Question 40

Outline Cognitive Therapy (CT) as a treatment for depression.

Answer 40

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) aims to challenge negative thinking and replace the negative thoughts with more positive rational thinking, in order to reduce depression.

Question 41

Outline Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) as a treatment for depression.

Answer 41

REBT extends the ABC model to include a D and E. • D – Dispute • E – Effect REBT works on reframing and disputing the irrational thoughts and mustabatory thinking through “vigorous arguments”.

Question 42

Explain the process of using a dysfunctional thought diary

Answer 42

1. Writing down irrational thoughts and rating belief in them. 2. Writing a more rational alternative to the thought. 3. Re-rating original irrational thought Rating of belief should lower after rationalising thought.

Question 43

Explain 2 techniques used to dispute the irrational beliefs in REBT?

Answer 43

Empirical Argument – disputing whether there is evidence to support beliefs Logical Argument – Disputing whether the negative thought logically follows the facts.

Question 44

Explain some weaknesses of CBT.

Answer 44

• Clients may need a course of antidepressants first • The client needs to be highly motivated/ committed to change for this treatment to be effective. • Not a quick fix - can take months to see improvement • Vast differences between skills and successes of therapists

Question 45

Explain some strengths of CBT.

Answer 45

• CBT teaches self-help strategies giving patient more control. • Deals with root cause and targets underlying problem rather than just masking symptoms. • Gives the patient some control over disorder & the power to change • No real side effects or withdrawal symptoms

Question 46

Describe a study that compared the effectiveness of CBT to drug treatments.

Answer 46

David (2008) compared the effectiveness of CT, REBT and Drugs. After the initial 14 weeks of treatment there was a similar effectiveness in each – around 60% improved in each group. At the 6 month follow up there was a higher relapse rate for the drug group than the therapies.

Question 47

Explain a problem with samples used to test treatments like CBT for depression.

Answer 47

Holmes (2002) argues that the evidence for the effectiveness of CBT comes mainly from trials of highly selected patients with “pure” depression and no other symptoms which he argues isn’t a typical person with depression.

Question 48

What are two drug treatments for OCD?

Answer 48

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI’s ) Benzodiazapines

Question 49

How do SSRI's work?

Answer 49

By blocking the re-uptake of serotonin after a signal has passed. Therefore, more serotonin is available at the synapse to bind to receptors.

Question 50

How do Benzodiazepines work?

Answer 50

These increase GABA. When GABA binds to receptors it opens a channel that increases the flow of chloride ions into the neuron. The ions have an inhibitory effect (make it more difficult for neuron to fire) which makes the person feel relaxed.

Question 51

Describe a study that shows the effectiveness of SSRI's for OCD.

Answer 51

Soomro (2009) reviewed studies comparing SSRI’s to placebo’s for treatments for OCD. It was found in all 17 studies they reviewed, that SSRI’s were more effective than a Placebo. It was found that SSRI’s are typically effective for about 70% of people.

Question 52

What are some of the weaknesses of using drugs to treat OCD?

Answer 52

(-) there are harmful side effects (-) there can be a publication bias in the research published. Therefore, drugs may appear more effective than they actually are. (-) behavioural therapies might be just as effective so drugs may not be needed.

Question 53

What is a phobia?

Answer 53

A type of anxiety disorder. Anxiety is a natural emotion to dangerous stimuli. Phobias are uncontrollable, irrational and extreme reactions, to an object or situation, that are out of proportion to any actual risk.

Question 54

What are the different types of phobias?

Answer 54

– specific phobias (spiders, flying etc) – social phobias (a phobia of situations involving other people). – Agoraphobia

Question 55

What are the cognitive characteristics of Phobias?

Answer 55

Recognition of exaggerated anxiety - The person consciously recognises that their thinking and reaction is excessive.

Question 56

What are the emotional characteristics of Phobias?

Answer 56

Persistent Fear – Phobias produce high levels of fear and anxiety over the feared object or situation.

Question 57

The behaviourist approach explains phobias by the 'two process model'. Explain what the two parts of this are.

Answer 57

It suggests that phobias are: – Acquired (learned) through classical conditioning – Maintained (continues) through operant conditioning

Question 58

Explain how phobias are acquired through classical conditioning.

Answer 58

Phobias are acquired when something which normally causes no fear response (neutral stimulus) is paired with something that causes fear (unconditioned stimulus). The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and produces a fear response.

Question 59

Explain the 'Little Albert' experiment.

Answer 59

Little Albert was a 9 month old boy who was classically conditioned to fear white rats when a loud noise (UCS) was paired with the rat (NS). Eventually Albert showed fear (UCS) for the rat without the noise.

Question 60

Explain some of the strengths and weaknesses of the behaviourist explanation of phobias.

Answer 60

(-) there are alternative explanations for phobias (e.g biological preparedness). (+) there are practical applications in the treatments for phobias (e.g SD). (+) research has shown phobias can be learned (e.g Little Albert)

Question 61

Outline what Systematic Desensitisation is?

Answer 61

This is gradually exposing a person to the thing they are fearful of while trying to relax around the phobic object. It works because of reciprocal inhibition.

Question 62

Explain what flooding is.

Answer 62

Involves exposing the client to the phobic stimulus. It is immediate exposure to the thing they are scared of – they go right to the final stage of hierarchy. Sometimes only one session is needed. As the client is unable to practise their avoidance their fear becomes extinct.

Question 63

What are the 3 stages of SD?

Answer 63

1. Develop hierarchy of fear (from the least frightening to the most frightening) 2. Teach the client relaxation techniques. 3. The client works thought the hierarchy while putting their relaxation techniques into practise.

Question 64

What techniques are used to work through the hierarchy?

Answer 64

Usually the hierarchy is completed using a variety of techniques: – Visualisation (in vitro desensitisation) – actual exposure (in vivo desensitisation) – virtual reality – Modelling – Role Play

Question 65

What are the weaknesses of SD as a treatment for phobias?

Answer 65

(-) It doesn’t work for all people (about 25% see no effect - McGrath) (-) It might be less effective for social phobias (-) it takes longer than flooding (-) it is unclear why it is effective – whether it more down the relaxation or the exposure to the feared object.

Question 66

Describe a study that supports the behavioural treatments of phobias.

Answer 66

McGrath – SD worked for 75% of people with specific phobias Craske – SD and flooding were found to be equally effective Gilroy – SD was an effective treatment for spider phobia, even still effective at 33 month follow up.

Question 67

What are the limitations of SD?

Answer 67

(-) It doesn’t work for all people (about 25% see no effect - McGrath) (-) It might be less effective for social phobias (-) it takes longer than flooding (-) it is unclear why it is effective – whether it more down the relaxation or the exposure to the feared object.

Question 68

What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?

Answer 68

Avoidant Responses – the fear of the object leads to avoidant behaviours to avoid contact with the feared stimuli. Disruption of Function – avoidance behaviours are so extreme they can interfere with the ability to conduct everyday activities.

Question 69

How are phobias reinforced?

Answer 69

By avoiding contact with the object = negative reinforcement – the unpleasant emotions (e.g anxiety) are taken away. This is why phobias persist in people that avoid contact with their feared stimulus.

Question 70

Why is SD preferred to flooding?

Answer 70

Flooding is argued to be traumatic and potentially unethical because it puts the client under a great deal of stress and anxiety. Whereas SD is only gradually exposing them to the thing they are frightened of so the stress is minimised.