Paper 2: The approaches

Question 1

Psychodynamic Approach: What are the 3 parts of the mind?

Answer 1

Id - present from birth and works on the pleasure principle

Ego - present from 1-2 years and works on the reality principle. It balances the wishes of the Id and the superego.

Superego - develops after resolution of the Oedipus/Electra complex and works on the morality principle

Question 2

Psychodynamic Approach: What are the 5 psychosexual stages?

Answer 2

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital

Question 3

Psychodynamic Approach: What personality traits arise from fixation at the Anal stage?

Answer 3

Anal expulsive - disorganised and rebellious to authority

Anal retentive - organised and submissive to authority

Question 4

Psychodynamic Approach: Explain the 3 defence mechanisms you need to know for the approach.

Answer 4

Repression - this is where a person pushes anxiety provoking thoughts into the unconscious

Denial - this is where a person refuses to accept reality

Displacement - this is where a person transfers feelings from one object onto another that is less anxiety provoking

Question 5

Psychodynamic Approach: What are the strengths of this approach?

Answer 5

(+) it has had a huge influence on psychology and Western contemporary thought and inspired many later psychologists

(+) It has practical applications eg psychoanalysis

Question 6

Psychodynamic Approach: What are the weaknesses of the approach?

Answer 6

(-) it has a lack of scientific evidence to support its ideas as many of its concepts are unfalsifiable (eg the unconscious)

(-) It is deterministic as it says behaviour is determined by unconscious thoughts and childhood traumas

Question 7

Psychodynamic Approach: Explain the Electra Complex.

Answer 7

Electra complex - a girl develops sexual feelings for her father and develops penis envy. This leads to anger towards the mother as the girl blames her for the lack of a penis. Eventually the girl identifies with her mother and channels her desire for a penis into a desire for a womb. This leads the girl to take on the morals of her mother and develops her superego

Question 8

Psychodynamic Approach: What are the 3 levels of consciousness?

Answer 8

Unconscious - where a person’s hidden desires and repressed traumatic experiences are.

Preconscious - where recent experiences are that can be accessed.

Conscious - what a person is currently aware of.

Question 9

Psychodynamic Approach: What personality traits arise from fixation at the Oral Stage?

Answer 9

Oral character - behaviours: thumb sucking, smoking or nail biting.
Personality traits: person is a compulsive talker, greedy and dependant on others

Question 10

Psychodynamic Approach: What personality traits arise from fixation at the Phallic Stage?

Answer 10

Phallic character - vain, narcissistic and proud. Can be reckless and engage in risk taking.

Question 11

Psychodynamic Approach: Explain what is meant by fixation.

Answer 11

Fixation is where a person doesn’t resolve the conflict of a stage successfully and so part of their unconscious mind remains stuck at the stage they fixated on.

Fixation is the result of overindulgence or frustration in that stage. For example oral fixation occurs because a child has been overstimulated or frustrated in the oral stage (0-1 years).

Question 12

Psychodynamic Approach: Explain the Oedipus complex.

Answer 12

Oedipus complex - a boy starts to desire his mother and this leads to jealousy of the father. This leads the boy to fear his father will find out about his feelings for the mother and castrate him (castration anxiety). Eventually the boy identifies with his father and represses feelings for his mother. The boy develops his superego by taking on his father’s morals.

Question 13

Humanistic approach: What are some of the assumptions (key beliefs) of the Humanistic approach?

Answer 13

The Humanistic approach assumes that humans have free will, are self-determining, and should be studied in a holistic and unscientific way.

Question 14

Humanistic approach: What did Rogers think all children should be given from their parents?

Answer 14

Rogers believed parents should help children develop a good self-concept and feelings of self-worth, providing unconditional positive regard.
A parent who sets boundaries on their love (conditions of worth) can lead to a child with psychological issues.

Question 15

Humanistic approach: What is meant by congruence and incongruence?

Answer 15

Congruence - where a person’s actual self closely matching their ideal self

Incongruence - where the ideal self is very different from the actual self. Rogers thought this is where mental distress can result.

Question 16

What are the weaknesses of the Humanistic approach?

Answer 16

(-) the approach has vague ideas that are difficult to test, leading to a lack of empirical support.
(-) potential cultural bias, as many concepts are more applicable to individualistic cultures.

Question 17

Humanistic approach: What are the hierarchy of needs?

Answer 17

Try to remember the hierarchy triangle… Physiological, Safety, Love/Belonging, Esteem, and Self-Actualization.

Question 18

Humanistic approach: What is self-actualization?

Answer 18

Self-actualization is the desire to grow psychologically and fulfill one’s full potential - becoming what you are capable of.

Question 19

What are the strengths of the Humanistic approach?

Answer 19

(+) positive view on behavior - humanism sees humans as basically good, working towards their potential and in control of their lives.
(+) a holistic perspective - examines a person as a whole to explain behaviour which is a more complete view on behaviour.
(+) practical applications such as Person-Centered Therapy.

Question 20

Describe the therapy of the Humanistic Approach.

Answer 20

Person-Centered Therapy aims to increase self-worth and reduce incongruence in a non-directive, warm, and non-judgmental atmosphere, requiring genuineness, empathy, and unconditional positive regard from the therapist.

Question 21

Where does the Humanistic Approach stand on each of the key debates?

Answer 21

Nature & Nurture
Free Will
Unscientific
Holistic
Idiographic Research

Question 22

Where does the Biological Approach stand on key debates?

Answer 22

Nature
Biological Determinism
Scientific
Biological Reductionism
Nomothetic research

Question 23

Where does the Learning Approach stand on key debates?

Answer 23

Nurture
Environmental Determinism
Scientific
Environmental reductionism
Nomothetic research

Question 24

Where does the cognitive approach stand on each of the key debates?

Answer 24

Nature & nurture
Soft determinism
Scientific
Machine reductionism
Nomothetic research

Question 25

Explain where the Psychodynamic approach sits on each of the key debates.

Answer 25

Nature & Nurture Determinism Unscientific Idiographic Research

Question 26

Explain what is meant by classical conditioning?

Answer 26

Classical conditioning is learning to respond automatically to stimuli that do not normally cause a reflex response. It is pairing an unconditioned stimulus to a neutral stimulus until the neutral stimulus produces a conditioned response.

Question 27

Give 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of the learning approach?

Answer 27

(+) uses scientific experiments to investigate its theories (high validity). (+) has practical applications (e.g Classical conditioning in systematic desensitisation). (-) ignores the role of nature on behaviour (i.e is reductionist) (-) too deterministic – seeing humans as having no free will.

Question 28

What are some of the key assumptions of the learning approach?

Answer 28

1. People learn how to behave environmentally 2. Only measurable behaviour should be studied 3. Animals can be used in research

Question 29

What are some of the key assumptions of the cognitive approach?

Answer 29

1. The mental processing happening between a stimulus and response should be studied. 2. Thought processes should be/can be studied scientifically by making inferences. 3. The mind works like a computer.

Question 30

Describe Pavlov’s study.

Answer 30

Pavlov found through research with dogs that if he paired a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus) several times then eventually the bell becomes conditioned to produce a response of salivation even without food present.

Question 31

What is meant by “SLT” and where does it fit into the approaches?

Answer 31

Social Learning Theory – it is part of the learning approach (with some cognitive elements) and argues that behaviour is determined by observing and imitating role models.

Question 32

Explain what is meant by the operant conditioning?

Answer 32

This is where an animal/human learns to perform a behaviour based on the consequences they have previously received, e.g a reward or punishment. Reinforcements increase repetition of behaviour, punishments decrease repetition.

Question 33

Describe Bandura’s study.

Answer 33

Children observed a role model behaving aggressively or non-aggressively towards a bobo doll. Children would imitate the actions that they saw In a later study it was found children are more likely to copy if they see the model rewarded and less likely to copy if see the model punished.

Question 34

Explain what is meant by vicarious punishment and vicarious reinforcement.

Answer 34

Vicarious Punishment – seeing a role model punished for an action so an observer doesn’t copy as they don’t want the punishment. Vicarious Reinforcement – Seeing a model rewarded for an action so the observer imitates to get the same reward.

Question 35

What are some of the assumptions of the biological approach?

Answer 35

That behaviour can be studied in a scientific way. That behaviour is influenced by: · Genetics · Hormones · Neurotransmitters · Biological structures like the brain

Question 36

Describe Skinner’s study.

Answer 36

Skinner placed pigeons and rats into a testing cage called the skinner box. Skinner found he could get the animals to do a variety of behaviour by setting up schedules of reinforcement and punishment.

Question 37

What are the mediational processes in SLT?

Answer 37

Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation

Question 38

Explain what is meant by a computer model?

Answer 38

This is using a computer to construct programs that mimic/simulate how the processes are working. E.g The idea of working memory can be likened to computers RAM (which is cleared and reset when the task is finished).

Question 39

Explain a similarity and a difference between computers and humans.

Answer 39

Difference: Unlimited memory of humans, organic living nature of the brain compared to metal/plastic computer. Similarity: physical features (e.g ears like a microphone), processing of data, memory storage, computers can lose data (like amnesia)

Question 40

Explain what Evolution is.

Answer 40

Evolution happens due to genetic mutations. If the mutation increases chances of survival or reproduction (i.e it is adaptive) then the mutated gene is passed on to next generation - NATURAL SELECTION. Over time, a new behaviour then becomes part of the gene pool.

Question 41

Explain who Wundt is.

Answer 41

In 1873 Wundt published the first book on psychology and in 1879 opened the first psychology laboratory in Germany. He is often considered to be ‘the father of psychology’. His approach, known as structuralism, was to study the structure of the human mind, by breaking down behaviours into their basic elements. He was interested in the mental processes of the mind.

Question 42

Explain the emergence of Psychology as a Science.

Answer 42

Wundt established psychology as a science by using the scientific method. The true emergence of Psychology as a science happened with the Behaviourist Approach. Watson and Skinner brought the language, rigour and methods of the other sciences to psychology.

Question 43

Explain what is meant by an “inference”?

Answer 43

An inference is the act of drawing conclusions from evidence and using reasoning. E.g. inferring how memory works on the basis of results from lab experiments.

Question 44

Explain what is meant by a theoretical model?

Answer 44

These models depict a series of stages and explain the process of a mental process. Usually represented like a flow diagram. E.g Multistore Model of Memory, Working Memory Model

Question 45

Explain the difference between genotype and phenotype.

Answer 45

Genotype – this is the genetic makeup of an individual. Phenotype - This is how behaviours and traits become expressed. It is what happens when the genotype is mixed with the environmental influences.

Question 46

Explain what each of the 4 lobes of the brain do in terms of our behaviour.

Answer 46

Parietal – deals with sensory information Occipital – deals with visual information Frontal – controls thinking & decision making Temporal – controls memory

Question 47

Explain what is meant by Introspection.

Answer 47

Introspection comes from Latin and means ‘looking into’. Introspection relies on non-observable responses. P’s were asked to reflect on their own cognitive processes (e.g Memory /Perception) and describe them. E.g see a picture and then report how that makes them feel.

Question 48

Explain the emergence of cognitive neuroscience.

Answer 48

This is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures & neurons on mental processes. It has “emerged” because of advances in technology. Involves the use of non-invasive brain scans like fMRI and PET to compare normal brains to brain damaged people.

Question 49

Who was Phineas Gage and what contribution does his case study give to our understanding of what the brain controls?

Answer 49

Phineas Gage was a man involved in a railway accident. He had a large metal pole go through his head which largely destroyed most of his frontal lobe. He became impulsive and his personality changed. This shows that the frontal lobe must be partly responsible for our personality.

Question 50

Explain how the processing of computers is similar to humans.

Answer 50

We take information in from our senses (like a computers INPUT) store it in memory or change it (like a computers PROCESSING) and then behave a certain way (like a computers OUTPUT).

Question 51

Explain what is meant by “localisation”.

Answer 51

Localisation is the idea that certain parts of the brain control certain actions and behaviour.

Question 52

Explain what a schema is.

Answer 52

Schemas are mental structures that represent an aspect of the world, such as an object or event.

Question 53

What are the strengths of Operant and Classical Conditioning research?

Answer 53

(+) Both OC and CC have practical applications. E.g OC in token economies and CC in systematic desensitisation. (+) Highly scientific research was carried out – high in internal validity.

Question 54

What are the weaknesses of Operant and Classical Conditioning research?

Answer 54

It may be inappropriate to generalise from animal research to humans. Low ecological validity of lab experiments means results may not apply to real life. Ethical issues – animals were exposed to stressful and unpleasant stimuli.

Question 55

Explain 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of the cognitive approach.

Answer 55

(+) uses scientific experiments to investigate its theories (high validity). (+) has practical applications (e.g CBT) (-) As mental processes cant always be studied directly, it relies on inferences and these can be inaccurate. (-) lots of research done in laboratories – so may lack ecological validity.

Question 56

Explain 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses of the biological approach.

Answer 56

(+) uses scientific experiments to investigate its theories (high validity). (+) has practical applications (e.g drug therapy, psychosurgery). (-) ignores the role of nurture on behaviour (i.e is reductionist) (-) too deterministic – seeing humans as having no free will.

Question 57

Explain what the classical conditioning diagram looks like.

Answer 57

Before conditioning UCS ---------- UCR During conditioning UCS + NS ---------- UCR After conditioning CS ----------- CR

Question 58

In Classical and Operant conditioning what would result in extinction?

Answer 58

CC – extinction happens when the CS (e.g bell) is presented alone without the UCS (e.g food) too many times. OC – extinction occurs when behaviour is no longer reinforced or if a behaviour is punished.

Question 59

Explain the different types of reinforcement in operant conditioning.

Answer 59

Positive Reinforcement – the introduction of something pleasant. Negative Reinforcement – the removal of something unpleasant.

Question 60

Explain how each approach explains behavior.

Answer 60

Learning – behaviour is learned through the environment Biological – behaviour is a result of internal bodily processes Cognitive – Behaviour is a result of processing of information Humanism – Behaviour is a product of our own free will Psychodynamic – Behaviour is caused by the unconscious mind.