Paper 2 - Statistics (research methods) Flashcards
1
Q
What is Quantitative data:
A
- Data that is expressed numerically. This data can be gained in experiments such as number of words recalled and this data is open and can be analysed statistically and easily converted into graphs
2
Q
Strength of Quantitative data:
A
- Simple to analyse which allows comparisons to be drawn between groups of data and patterns and trends to be established. Meaning its easy to make conclusions about the data Whereas qualitative is wordy and difficult to statistically summarise
3
Q
Weakness of Quantitative data:
A
- Lacks depth and meaning as it prevents ppts form being able to develop their thoughts, feelings and opinions. Therefore, may lack vital detail which reduces the internal validity
4
Q
What is Qualitative data:
A
- Data expressed in words/descriptive data and would be written description about thoughts, feelings and opinions. (concerned with the interpretations of language)
5
Q
Strength of quantitative data:
A
- Provides rich detail and depth which allows the ppt to develop their thoughts, feelings and opinions providing greater understanding of behaviour being studied
6
Q
Weakness of qualitative data:
A
- Harder to analyse as it is difficult to summaries statistically to establish patterns + trends. Opens the data to potential researcher bias as analysis is based on their subjective interpretation.
7
Q
What are the 3 types of data:
A
1) Ordinal
2) Interval
3) Nominal
8
Q
What is Nominal data:
A
DISCRETE DATA
- form of categories
-
9
Q
What is Ordinal data:
A
DISCRETE DATA
- Ordered/ranked
- No equal intervals
- Subjective
10
Q
What is Interval data:
A
CONTINUOUS DATA
- Standardised
- Universal
- Official
- Objective
11
Q
What is primary data:
A
- Data collected first hand/directly from ppts themselves and it specific to the aim of the study (gathered by questionnaire or interview)
12
Q
Strength of primary data:
A
- Data is collected first hand specifically for the aim which allows the researchers to specifically target the information they require in a way that suits the aim. Increasing the internal validity of the data
13
Q
Weakness of primary data:
A
- Data is conducted by the researcher themselves which involves time + effort to obtain data as well as analyse the findings
14
Q
What is secondary data:
A
- Data that has previously been collected by another researcher not specifically for the aim of the study
15
Q
Strength of secondary data :
A
- The data is easily accessed and requires minimal effort to obtain the researcher might find that information that they want to collect already exists therefore no need to collect primary data
16
Q
Weakness of secondary data:
A
- The data may be poor quality or have inaccuracies it may be out dated or incomplete and might not meet the direct needs of the researcher (meet the aim)
17
Q
What is Meta - analysis (secondary data):
A
- A form of research method that uses secondary data as it gains data from a large number of studies which have investigated the same research and questions and methods of research. And combines all information to make conclusions about behvaiour
18
Q
Strength of meta-analysis:
A
- Data is gathered from a number of studies which allows us to view data with much more confidence and increases the generalizability of the findings across a larger population
19
Q
Weakness of meta-analysis:
A
- May be prone to publication bias as the researcher may not select all relevant studies, choosing to leave out those studies with negative of non-significant results. Therefore data will be bias so incorrect conclusions can be drawn
20
Q
What are the 2 ways of analysis qualitative data:
A
- Content analysis
- Thermatic analysis
21
Q
What is content analysis:
A
- Analysing qualitative data by changing large amounts of qualitative data into quantitative this can be done by identifying meaningful codes
22
Q
What is it meant by coding:
A
- The initial process of a content/thematic analysis where quantitative data is placed into meaningful categories
23
Q
How is content analysis carried out:
A
- Read/watch video or transcript
- Create coding categories
- Re-read or re-listen and tally each time each code appears
- Present the quantitative data in a graph/table
24
Q
What is thematic analysis:
A
- Analysis qualitative data by identifying emergent themes enabling us to present the data in a qualitative format
25
How is thematic analysis carried out:
- If data is not already a transcript create a transcript
- Read&re-read transcript
- Identify coding categories
- Combine codes to reduce the number of codes (3 or 4 themes that are linked)
- Present data in qualitative format
26
Strength of thematic analysis:
- Easy to access the reliability of the findings and conclusions because other researchers can access the materials and use the coding system to ensure findings are consistent
27
Weakness of thematic analysis:
Potential researcher Baia as the content that confirms the researchers hypothesis is more likely to be identified and recorded compared to the content that contradicts their aims lowering the internal validity if the analysis
28
What is reliability:
- The ability to repeat a study in similar conditions to gain consistency results
29
What are the 2 ways to assess the reliability of content analysis:
- Test re-test
- Inter-RATER reliability
30
What is+How to carry out Test re-test:
1) Researcher creates a series of coding categories and tallying every time it occurs
2) The SAME researcher repeated the content analysis on the SAME data
3) Compare the results from each content analysis
4) Correlate results from each content analysis using STATS test
5) Strong positive correlation - high reliability
31
What is+How to carry out Inter-RATER reliability:
1) Two raters read through the qualitative data and create coding categories together
2) Read exactly the same content but tally SEPARATELY
3) Compare both the tallies
4) Correlate them using appropriate STATS test
5) Strong positive correlation - high reliability
32
What is operationalizing:
- Means to be specific and clear when defining the coding categories to make the codes more measurable
33
What are the 2 ways to assess the validity of content analysis:
- Face validity
- Concurrent validity
34
What is face validity:
- Quickest way of assessing validity. Involves an independent psychologist seeing if a coding category looks like it measures what it claims to measure at face value
35
What is concurrent validity:
- Assessing validity by comparing the results of a new content analysis with the results from another pre-exisiting content analysis. Is results are similar can assume the test is valid
36
How to improve the validity of content analysis:
- Ensure coding categories are operationalized
- Researchers are trained in how to use the coding categories
37
What does measure of central tendency mean:
- The general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data E.g mean
38
Strength of MODE:
- Easy to calculate less prone to distortion by extreme values as it not not take all data into account
39
Disadvantage of MODE:
- Does not take into account all of the scores so may be less accurate
40
Strength of MEDIAN:
- Easy to calculate not affected by extreme values
41
Weakness of MEDIAN:
- Not as sensitive as Mean as does not use all scores meaning less useful results
42
Strength of MEAN:
- Most accurate and sensitive measure as uses all data sets
43
Weakness of MEAN:
- Affected by extreme scores as it takes all scores into account which can result in misleading interpretations of results
44
Strength of RANGE:
- Easy to pick and calculate as it only uses 2 pieces of data to calculate
45
Weakness of RANGE:
- Can be distorted by extreme scores as it only takes into account the highest and the lowest scores so an inaccurate range could be achieved
46
Strength of SD:
- Most precise/sensitive measure of dispersion as uses all scores in calculation making it a more accurate measure
47
Weakness of SD:
- More complicated and time consuming to calculate
48
What does SD tell us:
1) A HIGH SD means scores are more spread around the mean so more variation in scores
- Score are LESS consistent MORE individual differences
2) LOW SD means scores are less spread around the Ean so there are less variation in scores
- Scores are MORE consistent LESS individual differences
49
What does the MEAN tell us:
1) Provides a good indication of the average score ppts gain
2) Higher the mean that is gained the greater the score (generally)
50
Features on a graph if NORMAL distribution has occurred:
- Curve is always symmetrical
- Curve extends outwards but never touched 0
- Mean, median, mode all occupy AROUND the same midpoint on the curve
51
Features on a graph if SKEWED distribution has occurred:
- Not symmetrical spread of data
- POSITIVE skew - data concentrated on the left
- NEGATIVE skew - data concentrated on the right
52
What are the 3 types of graphical representations:
1) Bar charts
2) Histograms
3) Scattergraphs
53
Bar charts are used when:
- DISCRETE data
- CATEGORISED data
- Used to compare conditions
- (bars never touch)
54
Histograms are used when:
- CONTINUOUS data
- Represent FREQUENCIES
- (Bars always touching)
55
Scattergraphs are used when:
- RELATIONSHIP between 2 co-variables
- Represent CORRELATION
- (Plotted with dots and joined with straight line)
56
what are the 3 main criteria when carrying out statistical testing:
1) test of Difference OR Association/correlation
2) Experimental design: repeated measures, independent groups
3) Nominal, Ordinal, Interval
57
What is the rhyme used to remember:
No Ric! Students Come Collage When Miss Says Ric U Pothead
58
Repeated measure =
Nominal = sign test
Ordinal = Wilcoxon
Interval = related t-test
59
Independent groups =
Nominal = chi squared
Ordinal = Mann Whitney U
Interval = Unrelated t-test
60
Correlation =
Nominal = Chi squared 2
Ordinal = Spearmans Rho
Interval = Pearsons R
61
5 Steps to interpreting a statistical test:
1) One tailed or two tailed hypothesis (1 tailed = directional 2 tailed = non-directional)
2) Number of ppts
3) Level of significance
4) Identify the calculated value
5) Identify the critical value in the table
62
Calculated value must be EQAUL TO OR LESS THAN the critical value:
- Sign test
- Mann whitney U
- Wilcoxon's
63
Calculated value must be EQUAL TO OR MORE THAN the critical value:
- Chi squared
- Spearmans Rho
- Unrelated t-test
- Related t-test
- Pearsons R
64
What is a Type 1 error:
- Is when the researcher has used a LENIENT P value. Researcher thinks results are significant so they WRONGLY ACCEPT alternative hypothesis
65
What is a Type 2 error:
- When the researcher has used a STRINGENT P value. Researcher thinks their results are not significant so they WRONGLY ACCPET the Null hypothesis
66
How to check for a type 1 error:
- Compare the calculated value with a more stringent P value if results are still significant the researcher has not made a type 1 error. (if results are now not significant could be a type 1 error)
67
How to check for a type 2 error:
- Compare the calculated value with a more lenient P value if results are still not significant then the researcher has not made a type 2 error. (if results are now significant could be a type 2 error)
68
What are the 5 sections of s scientific report:
1) Abstract
2) Introduction
3) Method results
4) Discussion
5) Referencing
69
What is the purpose of an Abstract:
- Allows the reader to get a quick picture of the study and help them decide if they want to read on
70
What goes in an Abstract:
- A summary of the study covering the aims, hypotheses, method, results and the conclusion
71
What goes in the introduction:
Begins by describing previous research in the area described links are made and it is also made clear how the current research will add to the pervious research
72
What is the purpose of an introduction:
Gives background on relevant theories and studies to explain how aims and hypothesis developed
73
What goes in a method section:
S - sampling method how many took part + info about ppts E.g. age
P - procedure written in the exact order of events
E - equipment details of materials + apparatus used
E - ethics significant ethical issues may be mentioned + how they are dealt with
D - design 'repeated measures' or 'covert observations' should be justified
74
What is the purpose of an introduction: (method)
- Gives a detailed description of what the researcher did this should provide enough detail for replication of the study
75
What is the purpose of the results section:
- To prevent the overall summary of the findings rather than reviewing the raw data
76
what goes in the results section:
1) DESCRIPTIVE statistics: tables + graphs showing frequencies and measures of central tendency and dispersion
2) INFERENTIAL statistics: stats tests are reported and calculated values and significance levels are detailed
77
What is the purpose of the discussion section:
- Discusses the findings and suggests possible uses and future areas of research
78
What goes in the discussion section:
1) Summary of results: written description of the statistical results focusing on whether the hypothesis was supported
2) Compare with other results: explain whether the findings support the results if the studies in the introduction
3) Limitations + modifications: evaluate the present research methods and procedures
4) Implications + future research: explain how findings could be used and any follow up studies could be conducted
79
What is a PEER REVIEW:
psychologists research papers before publication are subjected to independent scrutiny by other psychologists working in the feels who consider the research in terms of validity, significance and originality
80
What is the process of a PEER REVIEW:
- Research papers before publication
- work is considered in terms of validity, significance and originality
- Assess the appropriateness of methods + designed used
- Researcher can accept + reject + improve the research
- review can be open + single blind or double blind
81
Purpose of PEER REVIEW:
- Ensure quality and relevance of research
- Ensures published research can be taken seriously because it has been independently scrutinized by fellow researchers
- Helps prevent the dissemination of irrelevant findings
- Determines whether research should receive funding
82
4 problems involved with PEER REVIEW:
1) FRAUD: peer review in some cases had failed to identify fraudulent research
2) VALUES: Try to be objective but it is accepted that some of the research will be subjective to the views of the researcher
3) BIAS: institution is on Bias it may fall into + gender bias and positive findings
4) ANONYMITY: peer doing the review remains anonymous to produce a more honest appraisal
83
What are the 7 key features of science:
1) Theory construction
2) Hypothesis testing
3) Empirical methods
4) Paradigm
5) Replicability
6) Objectivity
7) Falsification
84
What is theory construction:
- An explanation for describing a phenomenon (event) which are based on observations about the world. This helps us to created predictions and them create hypothesis
85
What is hypothesis testing:
- They should all be testable and falsifiable. Which allows us to refine theories through acceptance and rejection of an experimental hypothesis or null
86
What are empirical methods:
- information gained through direct observation or experiment rather than opinion
87
What is a Paradigm:
- Where scientific discipline have a shared set of assumptions and methods
Paradigm SHIFT - where there is a evolutionary change in scientific assumption where the old paradigm os replaced with a new one
88
What is replicability:
- Repeating research to check findings are valid (procedures must be operationalised)
89
What is objectivity:
- Where research is not affected by the expectations of the researcher. Using factual measurements and measurable data to reduce subjectivity
90
What is falsification:
- The ability to be able to prove a theory wrong. This means a testable hypothesis should include a alternative hypothesis and a NULL hypothesis
91
How psychological research had impacted our economy: Psychology, mental health, and the economy
- Absence of work costs the economy over 15 billion pounds a year
- Psychological research into the effectiveness of treatments can have a huge benefit on the economy
- Using a combination of therapies can mean the individual can manage their condition effectively and return to work
92
How psychological research had impacted our economy: Psychology, attachment research, and the economy
- Research has shown that both parents are equally capable of providing the emotional support necessary for a child to have a healthy psychological development
- Fathers are now allowed to share paternity leave which increases costs for the economy as government fund it
93
How psychological research had impacted our economy: Psychology, social influence, and the economy
- Research into how people conform can be used ti influence the economy
E.g. can benefit economy as it can change an individuals behvaiour (informational social influence)
94
How psychological research had impacted our economy: Psychology, eye witness testimony, and the economy
- Loftus + Palmer found that leading questions can alter someones perception of an event this led to the development of the cognitive interview which does not use leading questions
- This can benefit the economy because it means that the police will spend less resources looking for the wrong suspects as EWT should be more accurate
