Paper 3 - Crime And Deviance Flashcards
(205 cards)
1
Q
what is social control
A
methods used to persuade individuals to conform to the dominant norms of society
2
Q
define the difference between deviance and crime
A
deviance = rule breaking behaviour that fails to conform to social norms
crime = law breaking behaviour that contravenes the criminal law of a society
3
Q
what do sociologists argue about crime and deviance?
A
that it is socially constructed
eg. homosexuality, drinking, smoking
4
Q
outline 3 functions that crime and deviance may perform
A
one function is that deviance can lead to social change. for example, new ideas and behaviours initially appear deviant but may cause social norms to change. eg. homosexuality
A second function is it can cause boundary maintenance. the social reaction to crime and deviance by media and courts reaffirms society’s shared values.
A third function is it acts as a warning. a high level of deviance indicates an institution is not functioning properly and needs to reform. this is identified by Cohen.
5
Q
What is the difference between societal and situational deviance?
What theorist is linked?
A
- Societal deviance refers to actions that are widely disapproved of by most members of society, such as murder or rape.
- Situational deviance refers to actions that are only considered deviant depending on the context, such as killing in self-defense or wartime versus in a civilian setting.
By Plummer
6
Q
How does time influence the definition of deviance?
A
The definition of deviance changes over time as social norms evolve. For example, smoking in public was once widely acceptable but is now increasingly seen as deviant behavior in many societies. Similarly, attitudes toward issues like homosexuality have changed significantly over the years.
7
Q
How does the concept of deviance vary by society or culture?
A
Deviance is culturally relative; what is considered deviant in one society may not be viewed the same way in another. For instance, alcohol consumption is legal and socially acceptable in many Western societies, while it is prohibited and seen as deviant in some Islamic cultures.
8
Q
What role does social group membership play in the perception of deviance?
A
What may be considered acceptable within a specific social group may be viewed as deviant by the wider society. For example, smoking cannabis may be widely accepted among young people, but is still seen as deviant by many adults and is illegal in certain contexts.
9
Q
What is Newburn’s (2007) view on the social construction of crime?
A
Newburn (2007) argues that crime is a label attached to certain forms of behavior that are prohibited by the state and have legal penalties. However, there is no inherent act that is always criminal; it becomes a crime when a particular label of “crime” is applied to it by the legal system. Social attitudes and laws around what is considered criminal can change over time.
10
Q
How does the interpretation of similar acts vary in different contexts according to Newburn?
A
Even similar acts can be treated very differently depending on the interpretations of law enforcement and the context in which they occur. For example, killing someone in a knife fight in a pub might be considered criminal, but killing in a knife fight during wartime would not be seen the same way.
11
Q
How does Downes and Rock (2007) describe the ambiguity of deviance?
A
Downes and Rock (2007) suggest that ambiguity is a key feature of deviance because people are often unsure whether a particular act is truly deviant. Judgements about deviance depend on factors such as who is involved, the context of the act, and societal norms.
12
Q
How do societal expectations influence whether an act is seen as deviant?
A
What is defined as deviant is influenced by social expectations about what constitutes “normal” behavior. For example, swearing at a peer in a casual setting may not be considered deviant, but swearing at a teacher in school is likely to be viewed very differently.
13
Q
What is utilitarian crime
A
Utilitarian Crime. Crime committed for material gain, e.g. theft and fraud.
14
Q
What is non utilitarian crime
A
non-utilitarian crime (crime without monetary gain e.g. vandalism
15
Q
What does Merton aim to explain through his strain theory?
A
Merton aims to explain why deviance occurs in society. He focuses on how certain aspects of society can be dysfunctional and how the strain between socially accepted goals and the means to achieve them can lead to deviant behavior.
16
Q
How does Merton build on Durkheim’s concept of anomie?
A
Merton builds on Durkheim’s concept of anomie by suggesting that it is caused by the strain between the cultural goals that society sets (such as wealth and success) and the socially approved means of achieving these goals. This mismatch leads to feelings of anomie or normlessness, particularly when individuals feel unable to achieve these goals through legitimate means.
17
Q
What is the key concept that Merton’s Strain Theory focuses on?
A
The key concept is the “strain” that occurs when there is a discrepancy between the cultural goals that society emphasizes (e.g., financial success) and the institutionalized means available to achieve those goals (e.g., education, hard work).
18
Q
What are the two consensus views that Merton highlights in his strain theory?
A
Merton highlights the consensus on what people should aim for in life (goals) and how they should achieve these goals (means). Deviance occurs when individuals experience strain between these two elements.
19
Q
How does rapid social change contribute to anomie according to Merton?
A
According to Merton, rapid social change disrupts the social solidarity and cohesion in society, leading to a state of anomie. This occurs because individuals can no longer rely on the established norms or means to achieve socially accepted goals, which creates confusion and increases deviant behavior.
20
Q
What does Merton mean by
“anomie”?
A
Merton uses the term “anomie” to describe a situation where there is a breakdown of social norms and values, particularly when there is a disconnection between cultural goals and the means to achieve them. This state of normlessness can lead to deviant behavior as individuals seek alternative ways to achieve their goals.
21
Q
What is the relationship between social goals and means in Merton’s
Strain Theory?
A
In Merton’s Strain Theory, social goals are the culturally defined objectives that society expects individuals to pursue (e.g., wealth, success), while means are the legitimate ways society provides for achieving these goals (e.g., education, employment). Deviance arises when there is a strain or gap between the goals and the means.
22
Q
Give two strengths to merton’s strain theory
A
Any of the following:
- Begins to explain the patterns we see
- Patterns shown in official crime statistics
- Both normal and deviant behaviour can arise from the same mainstream goals
23
Q
Give two weaknesses to merton’s strain theory
A
Any of the following:
- Takes official crime statistics at face value, over representing working class crime
- to deterministic - we don’t all deviate
- Marxist argue it ignores the power of ruling class to make and enforce laws in ways that criminalised poor - not rich
24
Q
How do Cohen, Cloward, and Ohlin’s subcultural theories build on Merton’s work?
A
Cohen, Cloward, and Ohlin build on Merton’s work by focusing on how different groups, particularly working-class youth, respond to the strain they face in achieving societal goals. Unlike Merton, who focused more on individual responses, they examine how entire groups form subcultures to adapt to this strain.
25
What is the main demographic that Cohen, Cloward, and Ohlin focus on in their subcultural theories?
They focus on working-class juvenile delinquents, as this demographic makes up the largest group of criminals and deviants. Their theories explore why these youth are more likely to engage in deviant behavior.
26
How do subcultures form according to Cohen's theory?
According to Cohen, subcultures form when working-class boys experience status frustration due to their inability to achieve middle-class success through legitimate means (like education). As a result, they reject mainstream values and form subcultures with alternative values, where they gain status through deviant behaviors.
27
What do Cloward and Ohlin argue about access to illegitimate opportunities?
Cloward and Ohlin argue that just as not everyone has equal access to legitimate means to achieve success, not everyone has equal access to illegitimate opportunities. They suggest that different environments provide different opportunities for deviance, leading to the formation of different types of delinquent subcultures.
28
What are the three types of subcultures that Cloward and Ohlin identify?
Cloward and Ohlin identify three types of subcultures based on the opportunities available:
• Criminal Subcultures: Found in areas with established criminal networks where youths can learn criminal skills.
• Conflict Subcultures: Found in disorganized areas with little social cohesion, where deviance arises from frustration and violent behavior.
• Retreatist Subcultures: Comprised of individuals who fail to succeed in both the legitimate and illegitimate worlds, often turning to drug use.
29
How does Cohen's view of delinquency differ from Merton's?
While Merton focuses on individual responses to strain, Cohen emphasizes the collective response of working-class boys who form delinquent subcultures. Cohen argues that deviant behavior stems from status frustration and a rejection of middle-class values, while Merton's theory revolves around the strain between goals and means.
30
What is status frustration, and how does it relate to deviant subcultures according to Cohen?
Status frustration occurs when working-class boys cannot achieve success through the educational system and other legitimate means, leading to frustration. To overcome this, they form deviant subcultures where they can gain status by opposing mainstream norms.
31
What does Cohen agree with Merton about?
Like Merton, Cohen assumes that working-class boys start off sharing middle-class success goals, only to reject these when they fail. He ignores the possibility that they didn’t share these goals in the first place and so never saw themselves as failures.
Cohen also agrees with Merton that deviance is largely a lower class phenomenon
32
What does miller disagree with Merton and Cohen about?
He argued that it’s false to suggest that working class delinquents reject mainstream values after experiencing anomie; instead working class males have always had its own independent subculture.
33
What does Miller suggest?
Miller suggested that working class boys were socialised into a number of distinct values that together they were more likely than others to engage in delinquent or deviant behaviour. Miller described these values as ‘ focal concerns’
34
What are Miller’s focal concerns with explanations for each?
FEASTT:
- Fate
They believe that their future is already decided; what they do won’t influence it
- Excitement
They seek out excitement (particularly when not at work)
- autonomy
They wish to be independent and not reliant on others
- smartness
They use wit (which might include smart remarks)
- toughness
They wish to prove that they are tough and hard
- Trouble
Link to excitement and toughness, they might well find themselves in trouble
35
What are some evaluations to Miller’s argument
- Miller just talks about boys without really considering gender. Some feminist critics have pointed out that these focal concerns might be masculine values rather than lower class ones
- It is not clear that what Miller refers to as the lower class really does have such distinct norms and values from the rest of society
36
What does Matza argue
- He suggests that we all share the delinquent values that lead some people to criminal and deviant behaviour but that most of us, most of the time, are able to keep them suppressed.
This is a learning skill, so we are more likely to commit crime when we are young.
- People are neither conformist or deviant, instead, people are able to drift between both throughout their life
- Matza suggest that the proof for existence of these subterranean values comes from the fact that people seek to neutralise their deviant acts. Therefore, they must understand and share those values. He suggests that people use a number of techniques of neutralisation
37
What are Matza’s techniques of neutralisation?
CLIRV
- Denial of responsibility
“ it wasn’t me” “ it wasn’t my fault”
- Denial of injury
“ it didn’t hurt” “ they have insurance”
- Denial of the victim
“ you deserved it” “ what did you expect?”
- Condemnation of the condemners
“ you’re just as bad” “ you’re only blaming me because”
- Appeal to higher loyalties
“ I had to help my friends/family”
“ I did it for my country/race/religion”
38
What are some evaluations of Matza?
- these techniques of neutralisation have the appearance of excuses; they could simply be used in an attempt to avoid punishment, rather than to drift back into mainstream values
- Matza is correct that many people may be delinquents when they are young and then go onto lead respectable lives as adults. The ability to conform to mainstream values when they mature and take on responsibilities shows that they were as socialised into the value consensus as those who did not participate in deviant behaviour in their youth.
39
What does functionalism see society as?
Based on a value consensus.
It sees members of society as sharing a common culture, sharing the same culture produces social solidarity.
40
Functionalists argue that in order to achieve solidarity, a society must have two key mechanisms – what are they?
- socialisation; instill the shared culture into its members helping to ensure that individuals internalise the same norms and values
- Social control; mechanism include rewards for conformity and punishments for deviance
41
What do functionalist argue about crime?
Functionalist see too much crime as the destabilising society, they also see crime as inevitable and universal.
Known society has some level of crime and deviance.
For Durkheim ‘ crime is normal… an integral part of all healthy societies’
42
What are the two reasons why crime and deviance are found in all societies? (Functionalists)
1. Not everyone is equally effectively socialised into the shared norms and values, so some individuals will be prone to deviate
2. Particularly in complex modern societies, there is a diversity of lifestyle and values. Different groups develop their own subcultures with distinctive norms and values, and what the members of the subculture regard as normal, mainstream culture may see as deviant.
43
What is anomie
Normalness/normality
44
What does Durkheim believe about modern societies?
In his view, modern society tend towards anomie - the rules governing behaviour become weaker. This is because modern societies have complex specialised division of lab. This leads individuals becoming increasingly different from one another, weakening the shared culture and resulting in higher levels of deviance.
45
What does Durkheim say about crime?
Crime is inevitable and also fulfilled two important positive functions
46
Durkheim believes crimes fulfils what two important positive functions?
1. Boundary maintenance.
Durkheim says when people commit crime, they are punished by the criminal justice system. This reminds other citizens of the value consensus which therefore strengthens its effectiveness.
2. Adaptation and change.
Durkheim argues this is when society needs to adapt and change as a result of crime. All change starts with deviance or in extreme cases, criminal activity. Individuals must be able to think differently if society wants to evolve further.
47
For Merton, deviance is the result of a strain between what two things?
1. The goals that a culture encourages individuals to achieve.
2. What the institutional structure of society allows them to achieve legitimately
48
What are the five different types of adaptation to the strain to anomie
ICRRR
‘I see (3) R’
1. Conformity.
Individuals accept the culturally approved goals and strive to achieve them legitimately
2. Innovation.
Individuals accept the goal of money, but using you means like theft to achieve it
3. Ritualism.
Individuals give up trying to achieve the goals, internalised the legitimate means and so they follow the rules for their own sake
4. Retreatism
Individuals reject both goals and legitimate means and become dropouts
5. Rebellion.
Individuals reject their existing societies goals and means, but they replace them with new ones in a desire to bring about revolutionary change and create a new kind of society
49
In what ways do labelling theorists take a different approach within crime and deviance?
- instead of seeking the causes of criminal behaviour, they ask how and why some people and actions come to be labelled as criminal or deviant, and what affects this has on those labelled
- accepting official statistics as a valid picture of crime – they regard them not as hard facts, but a social constructs
50
For labelling theory, what makes an act deviant/criminal?
- argue no act is criminal or deviant in itself. It only comes to be so when others label it as such.
- It is not the nature of the act that makes it deviant, but the nature of societies reaction to the act
51
For Becker, what is a deviant?
A deviant is someone to whom the label has been successfully applied, and deviant behaviour is simply behaviour that people so label
52
What is Becker’s concept of a moral entrepreneur?
Include the effects
These are people who lead a moral crusade to change the law. Beck argues that this law invariably has 2 effects:
- The creation of a new group of outsiders – outlaws or deviants who break the new rule
- The creation or expansion of social control agency, e.g. police, to enforce the rule and impose labels on offenders
53
What do recent strain theories argue
Recent strain theorists have argued that young people may pursue a variety of goals other than money success. These include popularity with peers, autonomy from adults, or the desire of some young males to be treated like 'real men'.
Like earlier strain theorists, they argue that fallure to achieve these goals may result in delinquency. They also argue that middle-class juveniles too may have problems achieving such goals, thus offering an explanation for middle-class delinquency.
54
What does Cicourel argue?
Cicourel argued that **justice is negotiable** and not fixed. He found that law enforcement and other social control agents make decisions based on stereotypes, or "typifications," about what a typical delinquent looks like. This leads to class bias, with working-class individuals more likely to be arrested and prosecuted, while middle-class individuals often receive more lenient treatment due to their background and their parents' ability to negotiate on their behalf.
55
What did Cicourel mean by
"typifications" in the context of law enforcement?
Cicourel used the term "typifications" to refer to the stereotypes or commonsense theories that police officers held about what a "typical delinquent" looks like. These typifications influenced the way officers perceived suspects and their decision-making process when it came to arrests.
56
How did police typifications lead to class bias in arrests? (Cicourel)
Police typifications led to class bias because working-class people and areas fit the police's stereotype of a typical delinquent. As a result, law enforcement officers patrolled these areas more intensively, leading to higher arrest rates among working-class individuals, which in turn reinforced the officers' stereotypes.
57
How did Cicourel argue that justice is "negotiable"?
Cicourel argued that justice is negotiable because not all individuals are treated equally within the criminal justice system. For example, middle-class youths were less likely to be charged when arrested, as their background did not match the police's idea of a typical delinquent. Furthermore, their parents were often able to negotiate with control agencies, ensuring that their child was treated more leniently, often being "counselled, warned, and released" rather than prosecuted.
58
Why were middle-class youths less likely to be prosecuted, according to Cicourel?
Middle-class youths were less likely to be prosecuted because their background did not fit the police's stereotype of a delinquent. Additionally, their parents were more likely to successfully negotiate on their behalf, convincing law enforcement and probation officers that the youth was sorry for their actions, would be monitored at home, and would stay out of trouble in the future.
59
What is primary deviance according to Edwin Lemert?
Primary deviance refers to acts that have not been publicly labelled as deviant and do not significantly affect an individual's identity or self-concept.
60
What is secondary deviance according to Edwin Lemert?
Secondary deviance occurs after an individual has been publicly labelled as deviant, leading them to internalize the label and adopt a deviant identity.
61
What effect does labelling have on an individual's self-concept?
Labelling can lead to a crisis in an individual's self-concept, where they start to see themselves as deviant, and it may force them to accept the label as part of their identity, leading to more deviant behavior.
62
How does secondary deviance reinforce deviant behavior?
Secondary deviance reinforces deviant behavior by isolating the individual from mainstream society, which pushes them toward deviant subcultures where their deviant identity is validated and supported.
63
What is a deviant career?
A deviant career is the process through which an individual continues to engage in deviant behavior after being labelled and ostracized by society, often finding support in deviant subcultures.
64
What does Jock Young's study on the hippies show about the effects of labelling?
Jock Young's study shows that labelling can push individuals into deviant subcultures. For the hippies, drug use became central to their lifestyle after police labelled them as outsiders, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy of deviance.
65
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in the context of deviance?
A self-fulfilling prophecy in deviance is when individuals internalize the labels placed on them, causing them to act in ways that conform to those labels, thereby confirming society's stereotypes.
66
What is the deviance amplification spiral?
The deviance amplification spiral is a process where attempts to control deviance, like labelling or policing, actually lead to an increase in deviant behavior, further reinforcing the original label.
67
How does Stanley Cohen's concept of 'moral panics' relate to the deviance amplification spiral?
Stanley Cohen's concept of
'moral panics' describes how media and societal reactions to deviant groups, such as the 'mods and rockers', amplify the perceived threat, leading to increased policing and public fear, which further escalates deviant behavior.
68
What is the impact of labelling on the criminal justice system?
Labelling can lead to biased practices within the criminal justice system, where individuals from certain social backgrounds (e.g., working-class or minority groups) are more likely to be labelled as deviant and treated more harshly.
69
What did Aaron Cicourel argue about the negotiation of justice?
Aaron Cicourel argued that justice is negotiable, and that middle-class individuals are less likely to be labelled as deviant because they do not fit the stereotypes held by law enforcement, and their parents can negotiate better outcomes for them.
70
What role do stereotypes play in labelling according to Cicourel?
Stereotypes shape the way law enforcement and other social control agents view individuals, leading them to focus on certain 'types' (often working-class or minority individuals), reinforcing class bias in the criminal justice system.
71
How can the labelling theory explain the over-representation of working-class individuals in crime statistics?
Labelling theory explains this over-representation by pointing out that working-class individuals are more likely to be policed and labelled as deviant, which results in higher rates of arrests and convictions, reinforcing societal stereotypes.
72
What is the concept of a 'master status' in labelling theory?
A master status is the dominant label or identity that overrides all other aspects of a person's self-concept. Once labelled as a deviant, this label can become their master status, affecting how others perceive and interact with them.
73
What did Goffman argue about the effects of being labelled as mentally ill?
Goffman argued that being labelled as mentally ill can become an individual's master status, meaning everything they say or do is interpreted in the light of this label, often leading to them being stigmatized.
74
How does institutionalisation reinforce deviant behavior?
Institutionalisation, such as being admitted to a psychiatric hospital or prison, can reinforce deviant behavior by isolating individuals from society, eroding their identity, and making it difficult for them to reintegrate after release.
75
What did Rosenhan's 'pseudo-patient' experiment demonstrate about labelling?
Rosenhan's experiment showed that once someone is labelled as mentally ill, their normal behavior is often interpreted as symptomatic of their illness, demonstrating how powerful and stigmatizing labels can be.
76
How does labelling theory critique official crime statistics?
Labelling theory critiques official crime statistics by arguing that they are not an accurate reflection of actual crime rates, but rather a record of the actions of law enforcement, which tend to focus on certain groups.
77
What are some criticisms of labelling theory?
Labelling theory is criticized for being too deterministic, suggesting that once labelled, deviance is inevitable. It also ignores the role of power in who applies labels and fails to explain primary deviance (deviant acts before being labelled).
78
How does labelling theory explain the persistence of deviance in society?
Labelling theory explains that deviance persists because labels can create a self-fulfilling prophecy. Once labelled, individuals may be driven into deviant subcultures, where their deviant identity is reinforced and supported.
79
# labelling an individual as deviant
What did Pillavin and Briar find?
They found that police decisions to arrest a youth were mainly based on physical cues (manner, dress) from which they made judgements about the youths character. Officers decisions were also influenced by suspects gender, class, ethnicity and time and place.
80
What do Marxists agree with functionalists about in regards to crime?
Marxists agree with functionalists that people’s criminality (or lack thereof) is moulded by social structures. However they regard this structure as based on conflict between class, with social inequality driving crime.
81
What is social deviance
refers to acts which are seen by most members of a society as deviant
82
What is situational deviance
refers to acts which are only defined as deviant in particular contexts
83
What do Marxists agree with labelling theorists about in regards to crime?
Marxists agree with labelling theorists that the law is enforced disproportionately against the w/c and so official crime stats are unreliable. However, Marxists criticize them for failing to question the wider structure of capitalism within which the labelling process occurs.
84
# explaining class differences in crime
how do functionalists explain class differences in crime
* views the law as a reflection of society's shared values
* crime results from inadequate or inappropriate socialisation
* different groups develop distinct subcultures, leading to crime
* Miller: LC subculture has its own values like toughness, leading to crime. Some w/c have been able to develop their own 'focal concerns'
85
# explaining class differences in crime
how does the strain theory explain class differences in crime
* w/c less likely to find legitimate ways to achieve goals - causing crime. = crime occurs when people cant achieve societal goals through legitimate means
* Merton's innovation: deviant ways (theft, fraud) to gain success
* w/c is more likely to experience strain due to limited opportunities
86
# explaining class differences in crime
how do subcultural theories explain crime
* builds on Merton's ideas: the w/c lacks means to achieve success. forming delinquent subcultures
* Cohen: Youths invert mainstream values to gain status, often through crime
* Cloward and Ohlin: different opportunity structures create distinct subcultures - criminal, conflict, retreatist.
(Subcultural theories explain how groups within society create their own norms and values, often in opposition to mainstream culture, to address shared challenges or experiences.)
87
# explaining class differences in crime
how does the labelling theory explain class differences in crime
* crime is a lbel given by society, especially to w/c people
* focus on the stereotypes and how law enforcement labels the powerless , making crime stats a tool of social control.
88
# explaining class differences in crime
how does traditional marxism explain class differences in crime (4 points - CTTT)
1. capitalism is criminogenic
2. the law reflects ruling class interests and ideology
3. the law is applied selectively
4. the law performs an ideological function
89
what do Marxist's believe explains crime
the structure of capitalist society explains crime
90
# explaining class differences in crime
One TM explanation is that capitalism is criminogenic (by its nature it causes crime), expand on/explain this point
* capitalism exploits w/c, using them for profit. Damaging w/c and causing a rise in crime and:
1. poverty = crime only way to survive
2. crime may be the only way to obtain consumer goods encouraged by capitalist ads - ulitarian crime (theft)
3. alienation + lack of control over their lives = agression and frustration - non-ulitarian crime (vandalism)
* crime not jus tin w/c. capitalism = 'dog eat dog' system of ruthless competition with the desire to win causing crime.
* Gordon - crime is a rational response to capitalist system + found in all social classes
91
# explaining class differences in crime
One TM explanation is that the law reflects ruling class interests and ideology, expand on/explain this point
- Chambliss argues laws protect private property – and are the cornerstone of the capitalist economy
- ruling class also have power to prevent introduction of laws that threatened their interests. Which is why there are a few laws that challenge unequal distribution of wealth.
- Snider = argues the capitalist state is reluctant to pass laws that regular activities of businesses or threaten their profitability
92
# explaining class differences in crime
One TM explanation is that the law is applied selectively, expand on/explain this point
- marxists agree with labelling various that although all classes commit crime, there is selective enforcement in the criminal justice system
- Working class and ethnic minorities = criminalised
- Police and courts ignore crimes of the powerful
93
# explaining class differences in crime
One TM explanation is that the law performs an ideological function, expand on/explain this point
- Laws are occasionally pass that appear to be for working class benefit rather than capitalism. Eg. Workplace health and safety laws.
- Pearce argues that such laws benefit ruling class too. Eg. Keeping workers fit for work, giving capitalism a caring face.
- The state enforces law selectively = crime appears to be largely working class phenomenon = dividing working class by encouraging workers to blame criminals not capitalism
- The media and criminologists contribute by portraying criminals as disturbed individuals = concealing capitalism makes them criminals
94
# explaining class differences in crime
What does Gordon argue?
That crime is a rational response to criminogenic capitalism
95
# explaining class differences in crime
What does Chambliss argue?
That the state passes laws to protect the rich
96
# explaining class differences in crime
What does Snider argue?
- The government don’t like passing laws that reduce profitability
- Corporate crime does more social and economic harm than street crime
97
What are corporate crimes?
Offences committed by large companies, or individuals acting on their behalf, which directly benefit the company and may involve increasing the companies profit or chances of survival
98
What are white collar crimes/occupational crimes?
Crimes committed by employees simply for personal gain, often against the organisation which they work
99
# explaining class differences in crime
What are strengths to the traditional Marxist view?
- shows the link between lawmaking and enforcement and the interests of the capitalist class
- Put into a wider structural context, the insights of labelling theory regarding the selective enforcement of the law
100
# explaining class differences in crime
What are the weaknesses to the traditional Marxist view?
- It largely ignores the relationship between crime and non-class inequalities such as ethnicity and gender
- Too deterministic and over predicts the amount of crime in the working class
- The criminal justice system does sometimes act against the interests of the capitalist class
101
What are Neo Marxists?
More recent marx-inspired theorists who develop their ideas using a Marxist framework
102
# explaining class differences in crime
What do neo Marxists argue about the traditional Marxist theory?
NM argue that TM fairies are too deterministic and suggesting that people are driven into crime by forces beyond their control. They suggest that no one is forced to commit crime and that many individuals facing the same circumstances don’t commit crime – so choosing crime is a voluntary act.
103
Who is one of the main theories for critical criminology
Taylor et al
104
What are the features of Taylor et al: critical criminology
1. Critical criminology critiques traditional Marxist explanations and responds to labelling theory.
2. It combines Marxism and interactionism by looking at both capitalism’s role in crime and how social reactions shape criminal behaviour.
3. It views ordinary criminals as victims of capitalism, suggesting crimes like theft are acts of resistance against an unjust system.
4. Media and governments manipulate crime narratives, using cases like muggings involving African Caribbean individuals to distract from broader social issues, framing crime as a social construct.
5. Criticisms include romanticising criminals, neglecting gender issues like patriarchy, and the field’s methodological complexity.
105
What functionalist whose work on social bonds helps Explain why some don’t commit as much crimes others
Hirichi
106
What concept do we associate with Merton?
Strain theory
107
Whose interests are protected by property law
Ruling class
108
Which sociological perspective do we associate with Chambliss?
Traditional Marxism
109
Why might the scale of the crimes of the powerful be too socially harmful to leave overlooked? (Eg Tombs)
Tombs Notes corporate crime has enormous costs:
Physical (death, illness, injury), environmental (pollution), and economic (taxpayers, workers, governments, consumers)
110
# explanations of corporate crime
How does the strain theory explain corporate crime?
- merton’s theory suggest people turn to crime due to their inability to achieve legitimate goals through conventional means
- apply to corporate crime = when business is faced financial pressures they may resort to illegal means like fraud
111
# explanations of corporate crime
How does differential association explain corporate crime?
- Sutherland’s theory explains crime as behaviour learnt from others in a social context
- In corporate environments, if culture justifies crime for profit, employees are likely to be socialised into this
- Geis found that when price-fixing was accepted in companies, new employees learn to engage in it
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What are techniques of neutralisation?
Skye’s and Matza describe how individuals neutralise moral objections to their actions by using excuses or shifting blame to company orders. This helps white collar criminals rationalise their behaviour
113
# explanations of corporate crime
How does the labelling theory explain corporate crime?
- Whether an act is considered a crime depends on how it is labelled. Businesses may avoid this through de-labelling by hiring experts or reducing visibility of crimes.
- Clinard and Yeager highlight that official records may underestimate corporate crime due to difficulties in law-enforcement
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# explanations of corporate crime
How do Marxists explain corporate crime?
- corporate crime is viewed by Marxists as a consequence of capitalism, where profit maximisation leads to harm
- Box argued that capitalism creates a mystification of corporate crime, downplaying its seriousness and normalising it in society
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# explanations of corporate crime
How does cultural criminology explain corporate crime?
Katz published his work called ‘ the seduction of crime’ in 1988, suggesting crime can be a seductive, pleasurable experience.
Lyng build on this with his concept of ‘ edge work’ – the idea that people could get a frill by engaging in risk taking – going right to the edge of acceptable behaviour
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How do Marxists see crime?
Marxists see crime as inevitable in capitalist society because it breeds poverty, competition and greed. All classes commit crime, but because the ruling class control the state, they make and enforce laws in their own interests, criminal the working class while escaping punishment for their own crimes. The law also performs an ideological function by giving capitalism a caring face period however, traditional Marxism is criticised for ignoring non-class factors that affect crime and for determinism.
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How does Neo Marxism and critical criminology see crime?
They see crime as a conscious meaningful choice – often with a political motive, like a rebellion against capitalism. Critical criminology combines elements of Marxism and labelling theory into a ‘ fully social theory’ of deviance. It has been criticised by left realist for ignoring the real harm chrome does to working in class people.
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What are realist theories?
They focus on the reality of crime: what’s actually happening, the impact of crime on individuals and communities, and how to stop it.
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How do realist theories see crime?
Realist theories do not see crime as simply being a social construction. They see crime as a very real problem and they have been developed with the intention of providing practical social policies to tackle crime.
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What are the differences between left realists and right realist in viewing crime?
Left realist tend to see inequality as the main underlying cause of crime
Right realists see this as relatively unimportant and instead point the finger at the welfare state and a breakdown in formal and informal social controls as the main causes of criminality
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What was Wilson and Kelling’s ‘broken windows’ thesis?
Argues that maintaining order in neighbourhoods is crucial to prevent crime. They claim that even small signs of disorder, such as graffiti or vandalism, must be addressed immediately to stop more serious crime from taking place
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What is ‘zero tolerance’ policing?
It is the strict enforcement of laws against minor offences like prostitution, begging, and vandalism. It seeks to immediately crack down on any form of undesirable behaviour to maintain order and make law abiding citizens feel safe.
123
# news values and crime coverage
What do Cohen and Young say about news?
Cohen and Young know that news is not discovered but manufactured
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What is one reason why the news media gives so much coverage to crime?
One reason is that news focuses on the unusual and extraordinary, and this makes deviance newsworthy almost by definition, since it is abnormal behaviour
125
Outline 3 ways in which individuals may react to strain (6 marks)
Example 6/6 paragraph:
One way they may respond is through rebellion. this is an adaptation identified by Merton. This means that individuals will rebel as a response to the strain between means and goals because they have replaced them with new goals and means in a desire to create change.
Another way of responding, identified by Merton, is innovation. This means individual individuals will accept goals and means but use utilitarian crime to achieve it.
Another way identified by Merton, is ritualism. This means individuals follow rules because they have given up trying to achieve goals made.
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Outline two reasons for why crime and deviance are inevitable in contemporary societies (4 marks)
Example 4/4 paragraph
One reason why is identified by functionalists, that not everyone is effectively socialised in the same way with similar values and norms. This means they will be labelled as outsiders or not be aware of what isn’t deviant, both leading to more crime and deviance.
Another reason is because there’s a lot of diversity. This means that values are extremely different and contrast one another, leading to more crime and deviance because there are too many sets of values and norms creating anomie
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What are the three causes of crime for right realists?
1. Biological differences.
2. Inadequate socialisation/the underclass.
3. Rational choice theory.
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One cause of crime identified by right realist is biological differences, explain this cause
Wilson and Hernstein: biological differences means some individuals are innately predisposed to crime due to personality traits such as aggressiveness or risktaking (connection to testosterone hormone)
AO3: unsociological and weak evidence base (Lilly et al)
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One cause of crime identified by right realist is inadequate socialisation, explain this cause
Inadequate socialisation, due to societal changes like breakdown of nuclear family, increases risk of offending. The welfare state is creating welfare dependency and facilitating the growth of an underclass (Murray). Generous welfare provision - like council housing, sickness and disability benefits etc - means people no longer need to take responsibility for their families.
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One cause of crime identified by right realist is rational choice theory, explain this cause
Clarke: individuals are rational with free will, meaning that deciding to commit a crime is a choice based on a cost-benefit calculation. If the rewards outweigh the risks and costs, people are more likely to offend. The crime rate is high because the perceived costs are too low; e.g. punishments aren't harsh enough to deter, policing is too 'soft' etc. Felson's 'routine activity theory' is similar.
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What is racist victimisation?
This occurs when an individual is selected as a target because of their race, ethnicity or religion
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What did the MacPherson enquiry conclude?
This enquiry concluded that the police investigation into the death of the black teenager Stephen Lawrence was ‘marred by a combination of professional incompetence, institutional racism, and a failure of leadership by senior officers’
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What are the three methods of collecting information of crime?
- self report studies
- Police recorded statistics
- Victim surveys
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# explaining female crime - biological explanations
What do Lombroso and Ferrero argue?
There are very few born female criminals
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# explaining female crime - biological explanations
What does Dalton argue?
Controversially suggested that during parts of the menstrual cycle, women are more likely to have accidents, carry out crimes, and have reduced scores in IQ tests
136
# explaining female crime
Give 2 AO3 to biological explanations of female crime
- bio-psychological explanations are not sociological. They failed to explain why female crime rates differ across time in place.
- Time Newburn = women commit every type of crime, so there can be nothing in women’s nature that excludes them being criminal
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# female crime
Biological differences between the sexes is an explanation of female crime. Give AO1 to this explanation.
- start from the belief that normal women are innately different from men in ways that make them less susceptible to commit crime, e.g. naturally caring. For example, Lombroso and Ferrero: there are very few born female criminals meaning less likelihood that women commit crime as fewer are born with a genetic predisposition towards it
- Some used biology to explain why some women do commit crime in certain circumstances. E.g. Dalton = controversially suggested that during parts of the menstrual cycle, women are more likely to have accidents, carry out crimes, and have reduced scores in IQ tests.
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# female crime
Biological differences between the sexes is an explanation of female crime. Give AO3 to this explanation.
Biopsychology explanations are a) reductionist, and B) not sociological. They failed to explain my female crime rate differ across time and place.
- Newburn: women commit every type of crime, so there can be nothing in women’s nature that excludes them from being criminal
- dalton’s work on PMS has been used as a defence in criminal cases. But no good research linking criminology with women’s hormonal cycles
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# female crime
Pollak’s chivalry thesis is an explanation of female crime. Give AO1 to this explanation.
- male officials in the criminal justice system are more lenient on women as they are socialised to be gentle towards women
- Women’s domestic roles gave them authorities to get away with abusing their children or poisoning their husbands
- Female prostitutes were seen as criminals were not the male clients
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# crime
what is the chivalry thesis?
Pollak suggests that male officials in the criminal justice system are more inclined to let women suspects off, or to punish them more leniently. The idea of chivalry suggests that men are socialised to be softer and protective towards females while being harder on males.
141
# female crime
Pollak’s chivalry thesis is an explanation of female crime. Give supporting AO3 to this explanation.
• Haralmbos and Holborn (2013): women are more likely to be given cautions rather than prosecutions and are less likely to be sent to prison or taken to court.
• Self-report studies: women's criminal behavior may be underrepresented in official statistics that show that men are 4 times more likely to commit crime.
• Men received an average of 34 months for robbery, but women only got 25 months.
Could also say steward
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# female crime
Pollak’s chivalry thesis is an explanation of female crime. Give opposing AO3 to this explanation.
• Home Office: found that courts impose more severe sentences on women than on men for less serious offences.
• Carol Hedderman (2010): there are rising imprisonment rates for women in the 21st century.
Stephen Jones (2009): pointed out that Pollak had no actual evidence that female domestic servants committed crimes against their employers.
• Pollak: contradicted himself by saying the thesis only explained a small part of the low female offending rate. He said the more significant factor was women being good at hiding their crimes as they could hide the pain of menstruation.
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# female crime
Pollak’s chivalry thesis is an explanation of female crime. Give opposing feminist AO3 to this explanation.
Feminist critique: bias against women
• Sandra Walklate (2004): argues that in rape trials women are not believed and a large majority of alleged rapists are never prosecuted She also critisised the lack of seriousness given to domestic violence cases by police.
• Lousie Westmarland (2010): women sex workers are treated harshly while traffickers escape punishment.
Actually Hedderman (2015) argues that the differences should not be seen as bias but rather a reflection of the different circumstances. For example, the impact of a prison sentence on a women with childcare responsibilities would be greater than a man without, thus community based options are more effective.
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# female crime
The sex role theory is an explanation of female crime. Give AO1 to this explanation.
- SRT IS ASSOCIATED WITH FUNCTIONALISM AND NEW RIGHT. Mainly concerned with the socialisation of men and women into specific gender roles in society - instrumental and expressive
- Gender socialisation – encourages women to adopt more feminine characteristics e.g. emotional, less competitive: tough, aggressive, more cautious
↪️ works together leading woman to avoid risk taking behaviour e.g. crime
- Socialisation is different for men and women. Men are socialised to be more aggressive and have less access to male role models. Women are scented on the home life and have more access to female role models.
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What is left realism?
• What it is: A sociological approach that focuses on the root causes of crime, like poverty, inequality, and social exclusion. It believes crime happens because society is unfair, and to reduce it, we need to fix those inequalities.
• Key Ideas:
• Crime is a real problem, especially for working-class communities.
• Tackling crime means addressing social issues, like unemployment and lack of education.
• Advocates for community policing and strengthening ties between police and communities.
Analogy: If crime is like a leaking pipe, left realism says we should fix the pipe (address social issues) rather than just mop up the water (arrest criminals).
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What is right realism?
• What it is: A more practical, tough-on-crime approach that focuses on controlling behavior rather than fixing society. It assumes criminals make rational choices and commit crimes when the rewards outweigh the risks.
• Key Ideas:
• Crime is caused by poor socialization, lack of discipline, or weak laws.
• Preventing crime means increasing punishments and making it harder to commit.
• Advocates for zero tolerance policing and situational crime prevention (e.g.,
CCTV, target hardening).
Analogy: If crime is like a leaking pipe, right realism says we should focus on cleaning up the water (stopping criminals) rather than fixing the pipe.
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# left realism
What was the 'aetiological crisis' for theories of crime?
The 'aetiological crisis' refers to the inability of traditional sociological theories to explain the rising crime rates in the 1980s. Many theories, particularly those rooted in Marxism, focused too much on crimes of the powerful or structural inequalities without addressing the growing issue of street crime, especially within working-class communities.
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# left realism
What do Lea and Young argue?
The founders of left realism, John Lea and Jock Young (1983) pointed out that most victims of street crime were not the rich but the poor, and that theft and assault made their already difficult lives harder.
For this reason, seeing modern-day criminals as Robin Hood figures was misleading.
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# left realism
What were the three related causes of crime? (Lea & Young)
• Relative deprivation: The feeling of being deprived compared to others, leading to frustration and potentially crime.
• Subculture: Groups that develop alternative norms and values, often in response to deprivation and exclusion, which can lead to criminal behavior.
• Marginalization: The social exclusion of certain groups from mainstream society, which can foster resentment and result in criminal or deviant actions.
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# left realism
How has late modernity made things (crime) worse?
In late modernity, issues like growing economic inequality, job insecurity, and the breakdown of traditional social structures have exacerbated feelings of relative deprivation and marginalization.
This has increased the pressures on individuals to succeed materially, often leading to more crime as a means of coping with social exclusion.
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# left realism
What was the 'second aetiological crisis'?
The 'second aetiological crisis' refers to the decline in recorded crime rates, which challenged previous Left Realist theories that predicted a continuous rise in crime due to structural inequalities, Left Realists argue that the decline in recorded crime doesn't reflect an actual decrease but rather a rise in unreported or unrecorded crime (the "dark figure" of crime).
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# left realism
How, for left realists, should crime be fixed?
Left Realists advocate for tackling the root causes of crime by addressing structural inequalities, improving community policing, and increasing social justice. They propose policies aimed at reducing relative deprivation, improving social cohesion, and creating more opportunities for marginalised groups to integrate into society. They also emphasise the need for policing to be more democratic and accountable for local communities.
153
# men and crime
What does Messerschmidt argue
Messerschmidt argues that different masculinities co-xist within society, but that one of these, hegemonic rasculinity, is the dominant, prestigious form that most nen wish to accomplish.
Hegemonic masculinity is lefined through:
'work in the paid-labour market, the subordination of women, heterosexism li.e. difference from and desire for women] and the driven and uncontrollable sexuality of men'.
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# men and crime
Messerschmidt sees crime and deviance as……
Resources that different men may use for accomplishing masculinity
155
# men and crime
Give one criticism of Messerschmidt
Messerschmidt doesn't explain why not all men use crime to accomplish masculinity.
156
# men and crime
What was Winlow’s study? What did he find?
Simon Winlow's (2001) study of bouncers in Sunderland in the north east of England, an area of de-industrialisation and unemployment. Working as bouncers in the pubs and clubs provided young men with both paid work and the opportunity for illegal business ventures in drugs, duty-free tobacco and alcohol and protection rackets, as well as the opportunity to demonstrate their masculinity through the use of violence.
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# men and crime
What does Winlow say about modern society?
He notes that in modern society, there had always been a violent, conflict subculture in Sunderland, in which 'hard men' earned status through their ability to use violence. However, the absence of a professional criminal subculture meant there was little opportunity for a career in organised crime.
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What is bodily capital? What does Winlow say about it?
To maintain their reputation and employability, the men must use their bodily capital. For example, many of the bouncers seek to develop their physical assets by bodybuilding.
Winlow notes that this is not just a matter of being able to use violence and win fights, but of maintaining the sign value of their bodies, 'looking the part' so as to discourage competitors from challenging them.
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# crime and race
What are low and high discretion stops?
• In low discretion stops, police act on relevant information about a specific offence, for example a victim's description of the offender.
• In high discretion stops, police act without specific intelligence. It is in these stops, where officers can use their stereotypes, that disproportionality and discrimination are most likely.
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# crime and the media
What does Felson argue
Felson (1998) → media portray victims of crime as older and more m/c → this links to the age and class fallacy- in reality the main victims of crime are young w/c males
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# crime and the media
What are the impacts of media reporting (crime wise)
• Reinforces stereotypical views of minority groups
• Increases fear of crime
• Reinforces ideas of who is the victim of crime and reasserting control through positive victimology
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Outline two ways in which media representations of crime may not reflect reality. [4]
• One way is that media representations exaggerate police success in tackling crime. This is because fictional 'cops' regularly 'get their man' while official prosecution rates are lower.
• A second way is that property crime is underrepresented in the media. This is because media portrayals are more likely to present 'entertaining' crimes, such as violence.
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How might the media cause crime and deviance?
There are numerous ways in which the media might possibly cause crime and deviance. These include:
• Imitation - by providing deviant role models, resulting in
'copycat' behaviour.
• Arousal, e.g. through viewing violent or sexual imagery.
• Desensitisation, e.g. through repeated viewing of violence.
• education - By transmitting knowledge of criminal techniques.
• By stimulating demand for unaffordable goods, e.g. through advertising.
• By glamourising offending.
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Does media's distorted view of crime cause the public to have an unrealistic fear of crime?
Yes. Gerbner et al found - American Tv viewers (over 4 hrs daily) had higher levels of fear of crime. But, some argue that this is correlational not a causation. And meaning can differ (Greer and Reiner)
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How might the mass media be increasing people's sense of relative deprivation (Left
Realists)?
Image of lifestyle = a materialistic good life
left realists argue that the mass media help to increase the sense of relative deprivation - the feeling of being deprived relative to others - among poor and marginalised social groups.
166
How is the technological revolution creating
a) new chances for cyber-criminality, but
b) new means of surveilling and controlling the population?
A) hacking, phishing, piracy, increase in porn industry, cyber bullying, harassment, inciting harm
B) surveillance - watching others! Control - info sharing - biometrics
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What is globalisation
The process by which the world is becoming more interconnected
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Why does globalisation have a significant impact on crime?
This has an impact on crime both because crime itself is becoming increasingly global (cyber crime, people smuggling, international terrorism, etc) and also because the effects of globalisation can have knock on effects on criminality, patterns of criminal organisation, and fears based on ‘global risk consciousness’
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What is global risk consciousness
Globalisation causes people to feel insecure and anxious about the risks of crime, disorder, and the need protect their borders. This is known as GRC. Eg the media (fuelled by politicians) has created moral panic about immigration etc.
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What does Taylor argue
Taylor: By giving free reign to capitalist market forces, globalisation has created greater inequality and given more criminal opportunities.
171
What is Rothe & Friedrichs: 'crimes of globalisation'
Globalisation has led to international organisations like the World Bank and IMF imposing neoliberal policies (e.g., privatisation, welfare cuts) on poorer countries through Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs). These policies benefit Western businesses but can cause harm (zemiology). For example, SAPs in Rwanda contributed to the economic conditions for the 1994 genocide.
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Quickly summarise how has globalisation affected patterns of criminal organisation
globalisation has transformed patterns of criminal organisation by enabling the growth of transnational networks.
Traditional, hierarchal structures like Mafias have shifted to more flexible, Entrepreneurial criminal networks that connect local and global markets. Includes the rise of 'glocal' organisations, Which operate locally but are influenced by global factors, and phenomena like McMafia, Where global economic changes fostered the development of organised crime linked to deregulated markets and exploitation across borders.
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# patterns of criminal organisation
What is Hobbs and Dunningham's theory?
Key concept: Crime is both local and global.
It is locally based, but has global connections
* Local context remains essential, with loose knit networks operating in hubs.
* Global factors, such as drug availability, influence these local networks
174
Name some key characteristics of contemporary criminal organisations.
* Operate as loose, flexible networks rather than rigid hierarchies.
* Combine local routes with global opportunities.
* Exploit deregulated markets, focusing on commodities like drugs, oil, and labour.
* Criminal organisations often evolve alongside globalisation, exploiting its structures for profit and power.
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# patterns of criminal organisation
what is Glenny's theory
Mcmafia
* Refers to criminal organisations that emerged post globalisation, particularly after the fall of Communism.
watch yt video
176
What is green crime and what can it be linked to?
Crime is committed against the environment. the affects are felt globally, not just locally.
Much green crime can be linked to globalisation and the increasing interconnectedness of societies.
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What does Beck argue about 'global risk society' and the environment?
Beck Argues that in today's late modern society, we can now provide adequate resources for all. However, the massive increase in productivity and the technology that sustains it have created new, 'manufactured risks' - Dangers that we have never faced before. like climate change, many of these risks are global in nature, leading Beck To describe late modern society as 'global risk society'
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What does white argue that green criminology/crime is?
White (2006) took this argument a step further and defined green crime as 'any human action that causes environmental harm'. Clearly, in his opinion, an act did not have to break the law to qualify as a green crime as he based his definition on the ultimate harm that arose from the crime.
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# Crime prevention and control.
What are the three strategies of how to stop crime?
* Situational crime prevention.
* Environmental crime prevention
* Social and community Crime prevention.
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# Crime prevention and control.
Situational crime prevention is one strategy of how to stop crime. which realist concept does it relate to?
Right realism.
181
# Crime prevention and control.
environmental crime prevention is one strategy of how to stop crime. which realist concept does it relate to?
right realism
182
# Crime prevention and control.
social and community crime prevention is one strategy of how to stop crime. which realist concept does it relate to?
left realism
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# Crime prevention and control.
Describe what the situational crime prevention strategy is.
Clarke Describes this strategy as an approach that focuses on reducing opportunities for crime, not improving society.
Target hardening - Increasing surveillance and locking windows., target specific crimes, displacement.
One criticism of this strategy is that they do not reduce crime. They simply displace it.
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# Crime prevention and control.
What are the strengths and weaknesses to situational crime prevention?
Strengths: targets specific crimes.
Weakness: doesn't reduce crime, displaces it
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Describe what the environmental crime prevention strategy is.
* This is based on the 'broken windows' thesis (Wilson and Kelling)
* They use this phrase above to stand for. to stand for all the various signs of disorder and lack of concern for others that are found in some neighbourhoods. This includes graffiti, vandalism and More. They argue that leaving broken windows unrepaired, sends out a single that no one cares.
* Zero tolerance policing - Wilson and Kellings Key idea is that disorder and the absence of controls leads to crime. One solution is zero tolerance policing and another is Repairing broken windows immediately. ztp - Instead of reacting to crime, they must proactively tackle even the slightest sign of disorder, even if it's not criminal.
186
# Crime prevention and control.
What are the strengths and weaknesses to environmental crime prevention?
Strengths: very influential on policy around the world.
Weakness: focuses on low level crime, discriminatory.
187
# Crime prevention and control.
Describe what social and community crime prevention is.
* Place the emphasis firmly on the potential offender and their social context
* The aim of this strategy is to remove the conditions that predispose individuals to crime in the first place.
* Address structural, societal causes.
* E.g Improve housing estates, leisure facilities for the young, improved relationships with police.
188
# Crime prevention and control.
Give weaknesses to social and community crime prevention.
Marxists - does it go far enough or just tinkering at the edges?
189
Outline two reasons why surveillance may not reduce crime. (4) (2023)
Firstly, surveillance may merely displace crime. This is because criminals may move their operations to areas without surveillance.
Secondly, it focuses on some groups and crimes, but not all. This means that social groups are over targeted (Based on labelling) And certain crimes are over surveillanced eg. CCTV and utilitarian crimes
190
# Punishment.
What are the two main justifications that have been offered for punishment?
Reduction and retribution
191
# Punishment.
Explain the justification of reduction for punishment. Include what it is and how it's done.
* Focused on preventing future crimes.
Done through:
* Deterrence: Punishing individuals discourages them from offending public. deterrence by making an example of offenders.
* Rehabilitation: reforming offenders so they do not reoffend, policies include education and training for prisoners and anger management courses for violent offenders.
* Incapacitation: removing offender's ability to commit crimes: methods include cutting off hands and execution.
**Key feature of reduction: it is an instrumental justification. (Means to reduce crime.)**
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# Punishment.
Explain the justification of retribution for punishment.
* Focused on punishing crimes already committed
* Based on the idea offenders deserve punishment.
* Reflex society's entitlement to "revenge" 4 moral breaches.
* **Expressive justification: expresses society's outrage rather than preventing future crime.**
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Durkheim identifies two types of Justice, corresponding to two types of society, what are they?
* Retributive justice. - Found in traditional societies, it focuses on punishing offenders to restore collective conscience.
* Restitutive justice - Found in modern societies, it aims to restore social order by repairing harm and resolving disputes.
194
What are the two main perspectives on victimology?
Positivist Victimology: focusing on victim proneness or precipitation.
Critical victimology: focusing on structural factors, like poverty, and the state's power to apply or deny the label of victim.
195
Define a victim and what Christie says a victim is.
A victim is someone who has suffered harm or a violation to their rights, through acts or omissions that break the law.
Christie says that a 'victim' is socially constructed with 'ideal victim' as weak, innocent, eg. child or elderly.
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What does positivist victimology focus on?
Identifying factors that make some individuals/groups More likely victims.
Interpersonal crimes of violence - Victim's role in their own victimisation.
197
What does critical victimology focus on?
Structural factors like patriarchy and poverty. The state's power to label or deny victim status.
198
# Patterns of victimisation.
In regards to class, who is more or less likely to be at risk of being a victim? Why?
Poorest group is most likely. This is because crime rates are higher in areas of high unemployment and deprivation.
199
# Patterns of victimisation.
In regards to age, who is more or less likely to be at risk of being a victim? Why?
Younger people are most likely. This is because they're more vulnerable.
200
# Patterns of victimisation.
In regards to ethnicity, who is more or less likely to be at risk of being a victim. Why?
Minority ethnic groups are more likely. This is because they are more likely to feel under protected yet over controlled.
201
# Patterns of victimisation.
In regards to gender, who is more or less likely to be at risk of being a victim? Why?
Males are more likely due to violent attacks by strangers (70%)
Women are also more likely in relation to domestic violence.
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What does Foucault argue?
Foucault describes that disciplinary power has replaced sovereign power because surveillance is a more efficient 'technology of power' (to control people).
Foucault uses his concept of 'panopticon' to show how surveillance can turn into self-surveillance and self-discipline. Rather than needing a public spectacle to scare people, control takes place inside the individual.
203
# Neomarxism: critical criminology
What is the The New Criminology - Taylor, Walton & Young
Aim to create a 'fully social theory of deviance' using marxist ideas on inequality of wealth and power plus interactionist ideas (i.e. labelling) about the meanings of the action for the deviant, plus societal reactions to it. They critique marxism's determinism and try to introduce some voluntarism (individual agency).
Criticised by feminisms for being malestream and left realists for romanticising criminals.
204
What is right realism belief on crime
Crime is a real problem.
Causes: 1) inadequate socialisation plus welfare reliance breeding an underclass (Murray); 2) rational choice theory (Clarke) - when people choose to commit crime they are making a rational decision to do so
Solutions: situational crime prevention (target hardening etc), zero tolerance (Broken Windows thesis, policing crackdowns), welfare reform
205
What is left realism belief on crime
Marxists and neomarxists haven't been taking crime seriously as a real problem - reflected in crime statistics.
Causes: relative deprivation, subculture and marginalisation
Solution: communitarian approaches, with police working with local communities and other groups like social services; improve structural inequality in society
