Sociological Theory Paper 1 And 3 Flashcards

Question

What is a paradigm, according to Kuhn?

Answer 1

A shared framework of assumptions within which normal science operates.

Answer 2

Kuhn argues that scientists work within paradigms and only question them during revolutions, whereas Popper believes scientists always seek to falsify theories.

Answer 3

Because it lacks a single dominant paradigm

Answer 4

Closed systems allow controlled experiments, while open systems are complex and unpredictable, making controlled experiments impossible.

Answer 5

Because it seeks to uncover real but unobservable structures, similar to sciences like meteorology or geology.

Answer 6

They reject positivism’s focus on only observable phenomena and interpretivism’s view that sociology is purely subjective.

Answer 7

Because society is fragmented, with multiple perspectives and no universal laws governing human behaviour.

Answer 8

They see both science and sociology as metanarratives—grand theories claiming to explain reality, but no single truth exists.

Answer 9

Because it excludes alternative viewpoints and reinforces power structures.

Answer 10

Interpretivists argue sociology is not a science because it studies human behaviour, which is based on internal meanings - not external. Unlike natural sciences, which deal with measurable and observable causations, sociology examines how individuals construct their own realities through interactions and meanings. For example, Weber emphasises verstehen - suggesting that researchers must interpret social actions from the actors perspective rather than scientific methods. Since human behaviour is unpredictable and influenced by individual meanings, sociology cannot produce the universal laws that science requires - making it not a science. Would you be able to write something like that? Write the second paragraph!!

Answer 11

Kuhn stated that science is paradigmatic, meaning there is a fixed set of rules and principles which science uses. It is like a set of norms and values and is accepted by all scientists. Therefore, according to Kuhn, sociology is pre-paradigmatic and hasn't reached the stage where there is a general paradigm shared by most social scientists. This is seen by the fact that sociology has a range of views and theoretical perspectives and there is no agreed set of norms and values; e.g. marxists disagree with functionalists on the value consensus. Sociological perspectives may also have internal disagreements such ac Merton's criticism of other functionalists. Those who criticise Kuh however, would question whether science itself has a paradigm.

Answer 12

Subjectivity = Sociologists are part of the society they are studying, therefore are involved in what they are researching. Their own values and beliefs will affect the research in some way; this means it is impossible for them to be completely objective and detached. Objectivity = Researchers approach topics with a totally open mind and with complete detachment, separation and distance from those being studied. The research process and findings remain completely independent of (and uninfluenced by) subjective influences like the personal feelings, beliefs, or values of the researchers. ** It's probably better to see subjectivity and objectivity as a continuum rather than an either/or. Most sociologists adopt the position that sociology cannot avoid values having some influence, but these must not be allowed to affect the research and data collection process itself.**

Answer 13

Comte Durkheim Marx

Answer 14

They believed sociology should be objective and value-free, similar to natural sciences.

Answer 15

Weber argued that facts are objective, while values are subjective judgments.

Answer 16

He believed values influence topic selection but should not interfere with data interpretation.

Answer 17

Sociologists should be transparent about their values to avoid bias.

Answer 18

Research influenced by the values of the researcher, either consciously or unconsciously.

Answer 19

1. Values as a guide to research Researchers choose what to study based on their values, as social reality consists of infinite facts and values help determine which aspects are important 2. Data collection and hypothesis testing While selecting topics is value driven, the ax to al process of gathering data and testing hypothesis must remain objective and free from bias 3. Values in the interpretation of data Values influence how data is interpreted within theoretical frameworks, so sociologists should be transparent about their perspectives to avoid unconscious bias 4. Values and the sociologist as a citizen Sociologists must take moral responsibility for how their research is used, rather than claiming neutrality and ignoring the potential consequences

Answer 20

1. Values as a guide to research Researchers choose what to study based on their values, as social reality consists of infinite facts and values help determine which aspects are important 2. Data collection and hypothesis testing While selecting topics is value driven, the ax to al process of gathering data and testing hypothesis must remain objective and free from bias 3. Values in the interpretation of data Values influence how data is interpreted within theoretical frameworks, so sociologists should be transparent about their perspectives to avoid unconscious bias 4. Values and the sociologist as a citizen Sociologists must take moral responsibility for how their research is used, rather than claiming neutrality and ignoring the potential consequences

Answer 21

He saw sociology as a tool for revealing the inequalities in society and promoting change

Answer 22

Value freedom means sociologists’ values are completely irrelevant to their research. This is because science deals with facts, so sociology should focus on what is, not what ought to be. Gouldner criticizes this, arguing that it turns sociologists into “spiritless technicians” and mere “hired hands.”

Answer 23

Because sociologists are part of society and may have biases that affect their research

Answer 24

1. The desire to appear scientific 2. The social position of sociology

Answer 25

The desire to appear scientific led positivists to argue for moral neutrality in research, as science focuses on facts, not values. By adopting scientific methods, sociology could gain prestige and respectability, which was crucial during its development as an academic discipline in the 20th century.

Answer 26

The social position of sociology led to sociologists becoming “spiritless technicians” by the 1950s, as they shifted from being “problem makers” to “problem talkers.” Gouldner argued that by leaving their values behind, sociologists avoided criticizing their financial backers, essentially making a “gentleman’s promise.” This attitude, where sociologists viewed their values as irrelevant, was criticized by Weber, who believed sociologists should take moral responsibility for the impact of their work.

Answer 27

Myrdal argues that sociologists should not only state their values (as Weber suggests) but also actively take sides by exposing the values and interests of specific individuals or groups.

Answer 28

They argue that it is neither possible nor desirable to keep values out of research.

Answer 29

It’s impossible because sociologists’ own values or their funding sources will always influence research. It’s undesirable because without values, sociologists risk serving the interests of those who pay them, potentially causing harm.

Answer 30

Becker argues that all sociology is value-laden, so sociologists must acknowledge this and take a side. Traditional sociology often aligns with the powerful (e.g., police), but he believes it should side with the underdog (e.g., criminals) to highlight their perspective, give them a voice, and reveal the hidden rationality in their behavior.

Answer 31

Goffman argues that to truly understand mental patients, sociologists must take their side. What psychiatrists see as “irrational” may actually be rational from the patient’s perspective.

Answer 32

Gouldner argues that Becker’s view is too sentimental and romanticized. He criticizes Becker for only studying passive victims of oppression rather than those actively resisting it.

Answer 33

Gouldner argues that sociology should side with those “fighting back” —radicals and revolutionaries. It should not just describe oppression but actively work to expose and challenge the power structures that maintain dominance

Answer 34

1. Funding bodies – Research funded by governments, businesses, or charities may influence the questions asked and direction of research. 2. Career ambitions – Sociologists may choose topics that enhance their reputation or avoid controversy. 3. Perspective – A sociologist’s perspective (e.g., Marxist, functionalist) shapes research focus and conclusions. 4. Methodology – Different methodologies, like quantitative for positivists or qualitative for interactionists, influence the data collected. 5. Relativism – If all knowledge is value-laden, there is no single “truth,” only multiple perspectives, as argued by post-modernism.

Answer 35

Early positivists like Comte and Durkheim, as well as modern positivists, argue that objectivity is possible because they believe sociologists can separate their personal values and biases from their research to produce scientific, neutral findings.

Answer 36

Weber, Gouldner, and Becker argue that objectivity is impossible because they believe sociologists’ values, perspectives, and social positions inevitably influence their research, making it impossible to completely remove bias.

Answer 37

Early positivists like Comte and Durkheim, modern positivists, and Weber believe seeking objectivity is desirable because it enhances the scientific credibility and neutrality of sociology, allowing it to be respected as a legitimate, unbiased discipline.

Answer 38

Weber, Gouldner, and Becker believe seeking objectivity is undesirable because it can lead to a detachment from social issues and prevent sociologists from taking responsibility for their research’s impact, potentially serving the interests of the powerful.

Answer 39

Parsons’ functionalism sees social order as based on a value consensus. He compares society to a biological organism, where each part functions to meet the system’s needs. Individuals are integrated through socialization into shared culture and values, ensuring they perform expected roles. Social change is gradual and evolutionary, occurring through structural differentiation and dynamic equilibrium.

Answer 40

The system needs (AGIL) are: • Adaptation (Economic system) – Meeting material needs (Instrumental) • Goal Attainment (Political system) – Setting and achieving society’s goals (Instrumental) • Integration (Cultural system) – Maintaining social cohesion (Expressive) • Latency (Kinship system) – Managing tensions and socializing individuals (Expressive)

Answer 41

Traditional = collective interests, ascribed status, particularistic standards Modern = individual self interest, achieved status, universalistic standards

Answer 42

Societies evolve like organisms from simple to complex, with specialised institutions replacing more functional ones

Answer 43

Institutions split into specialised parts, e.g. kinship loses economic, political, and educational roles to factories, governments, and schools

Answer 44

Change in one part of society needs to changes in others e.g. industrialisation needs to the shift from extended family to nuclear family

Answer 45

Because not everything in society is indispensable (there are functional alternatives), not all parts of society are tightly connected (some have functional autonomy), and some aspects of society are dysfunctional.

Answer 46

1. Indispensability – Parsons assumes all institutions are essential in their current form, but Merton argues alternatives (e.g., single parents instead of nuclear families) can serve the same function. 2. Functional unity – Parsons assumes all parts of society are closely connected, but Merton suggests modern institutions (e.g., banking) can function independently. 3. Universal functionalism – Parsons assumes everything benefits society as a whole, but Merton highlights dysfunctions, where some institutions benefit certain groups while disadvantaging others.

Answer 47

Merton challenges the idea that society is always stable and well-integrated, arguing that institutions can be independent, replaceable, and sometimes dysfunctional

Answer 48

1. Logical Criticism (Popper) – Functionalism is unfalsifiable and teleological (explains things by effects, not causes). 2. Conflict Criticism (Marxism) – Ignores conflict and exploitation, justifies the status quo. 3. Action Criticism (Wrong) – Over-socialized view of individuals; ignores free will. 4. Postmodernist Criticism – Assumes stability and order; society is too diverse and unstable for one grand theory.

Answer 49

Popper argues that functionalism is unfalsifiable because it explains things by their effects rather than causes (teleological reasoning). For example, saying “the family exists because children need socialization” is illogical since causes must come before effects. Additionally, functionalism sees deviance as both functional and dysfunctional, making it impossible to disprove.

Answer 50

Conflict theorists argue that functionalism ignores conflict and change by portraying society as a harmonious whole. Marxists claim that society is based on class conflict and exploitation, where stability exists because the ruling class maintains power through force or ideology. Functionalism is seen as a conservative ideology that justifies the status quo.

Answer 51

Wrong argues that functionalism presents an over-socialized and deterministic view of individuals, treating them as puppets controlled by society. He claims that people have free will and actively create society rather than being passively shaped by it. Functionalism also reifies society—treating it as an independent entity rather than a product of human interaction.

Answer 52

Postmodernists argue that functionalism assumes stability and order, but modern society is diverse and unstable. They criticize it as a meta-narrative (a grand theory), claiming that no single theory can explain society today.

Answer 53

1. Ignores conflict and inequality – Functionalism assumes harmony, but society is shaped by class, gender, and ethnic conflicts (Marxist/Feminist critique). 2. Outdated and deterministic – Modern society is diverse and unstable (Postmodernist critique); functionalism sees individuals as passive rather than having free will (Wrong, Action Theory).

Answer 54

• Manifest functions are the intended and recognized outcomes of an action or institution (e.g., schools educating children). • Latent functions are the unintended and unrecognized outcomes (e.g., schools providing childcare or social networks). • Dysfunctions are the negative consequences that can be either manifest or latent (e.g., schools perpetuating inequality).

Answer 55

1. Parsons’ theory of society – Like Marx, he attempts a general theory of how society functions as a whole. 2. Merton’s concepts – Dysfunctions and latent/manifest functions help reveal hidden connections in society. 3. System of interdependence – Even critics (e.g., Marxists) acknowledge that society consists of interconnected parts. 4. Explains social order – Functionalism helps explain why society remains stable and why people generally conform to norms.

Answer 56

Historical materialism is Marx’s theory that human societies develop based on their material needs. People must produce food, clothing, and shelter to survive, which leads to specific social and economic structures. Over time, as the forces of production develop, social relations change, leading to new economic systems and class struggles.

Answer 57

Capitalism exploits workers by allowing the bourgeoisie (owners of production) to extract surplus value from the proletariat’s labor. Workers produce more value than they receive in wages, with the excess profit benefiting the ruling class. Capitalism also de-skills labor, making workers easily replaceable and increasing their dependency on the system.

Answer 58

Marx believed capitalism contained contradictions that would lead to its downfall. As wealth becomes concentrated in fewer hands, class consciousness among workers grows. Economic crises, overproduction, and class struggle would eventually make capitalism unsustainable, leading to a proletarian revolution and the establishment of communism.

Answer 59

Class consciousness is workers’ awareness of their exploitation and their collective interests as a class. Marx argued that capitalism keeps workers divided, but as exploitation worsens, they recognize their shared struggle and unite against the bourgeoisie, leading to revolutionary change.

Answer 60

The ruling class controls ideology through institutions like religion, media, and education, which promote ideas that justify inequality. These ideological state apparatuses convince workers that capitalism is fair and inevitable, preventing them from questioning or resisting their oppression.

Answer 61

Marx argued that as capitalism develops, the proletariat would become increasingly exploited, leading to growing dissatisfaction and class consciousness. Eventually, workers would overthrow the bourgeoisie through revolution, abolish private property, and establish a communist society without class divisions.

Answer 62

Marx identified four types of alienation that workers experience under capitalism: 1. Alienation from the product of labor – Workers do not own or control what they produce; instead, the products belong to the capitalist, leading to a lack of connection to their work. 2. Alienation from the production process – Workers have little control over how they work. Their labor is repetitive, monotonous, and dictated by the needs of profit rather than personal fulfillment. 3. Alienation from others – Capitalism promotes competition rather than cooperation, isolating workers from one another and preventing solidarity. 4. Alienation from human potential – Work becomes a means of survival rather than a fulfilling activity, limiting creativity and preventing workers from reaching their full potential.

Answer 63

Antonio Gramsci

Answer 64

It focuses on alienation and people’s subjective experience of the world, arguing that individuals play an active role in shaping history.

Answer 65

Marxism is a political critique of capitalism that provides the tools to overthrow it.

Answer 66

It believes that humans have free will and actively make history through their ideas and consciousness rather than being completely shaped by economic structures.

Answer 67

Socialism comes about when people become conscious of capitalism’s inequalities and actively work to overthrow it. Political action is not automatic; the right conditions must be created.

Answer 68

Hegemony refers to how the ruling class maintains power by controlling both ideas (ideological control) and force (coercion).

Answer 69

Through coercion (force via the army, police, prisons) and consent (persuading the working class to accept capitalism as legitimate through ideology).

Answer 70

By challenging ruling-class ideology and offering a new socialist vision of society based on equality instead of capitalism.

Answer 71

He is accused of over-emphasizing ideas and underestimating the role of state coercion and economic factors in maintaining capitalism.

Answer 72

Louis Althusser

Answer 73

It focuses on Marx’s later writings, which argue that capitalist development follows necessary structural laws, making economic change inevitable.

Answer 74

Marxism is a science, and sociologists should focus on revealing the hidden structures that shape human behavior.

Answer 75

It argues that people’s actions are not freely chosen but are instead determined by structural forces beyond their control.

Answer 76

Socialism only happens when contradictions within capitalism reach a breaking point, causing the system to collapse and be replaced.

Answer 77

He expands it into three levels of control: 1. Economic structures (how goods are produced) 2. Political structures (the state and laws) 3. Ideological structures (media, education, religion)

Answer 78

• Repressive state apparatuses (RSAs) use force (e.g., police, army). • Ideological state apparatuses (ISAs) use ideas (e.g., media, education, religion).

Answer 79

He rejects the idea that people can change society through ideas alone, arguing that social structures shape everything and that free will is an illusion.

Answer 80

Humanistic Marxists argue that Althusser’s approach is too deterministic and discourages political activism by making people feel powerless.

Answer 81

A class in itself' is where a group (e.g. workers) shares the same economic position; a 'class for itself' is where they recognise their shared interests as a class, i.e. they become class conscious.

Answer 82

Both are macro theories focusing on the structure of society; both see society shaping individuals; both arose as a response to growing industrial society.

Answer 83

The economic base

Answer 84

The separation of workers from the ownership of the means of production and control of the work process and what they produce.

Answer 85

The expanding proletariat; disappearance of the middle class; immiseration; inevitability of revolution by industrial workers.

Answer 86

'Determinism' means that structural factors determine individuals' actions; 'voluntarism' means that individuals have free will to make their own decisions and choose their course of action.

Answer 87

Through the domination of ideas and values, via ruling-class control of institutions such as education, the media, religion and the law.

Answer 88

The organisations that use force or the threat of it maintain the rule of the bourgeoisie, such as the armed forces, the police, the courts, prisons, the secret service.

Answer 89

A classless, stateless society in which the means of production are communally owned and where exploitation and alienation have disappeared.

Answer 90

Feminists study society from the viewpoint of women, seeing it as male-dominated. They seek to explain and change women’s position. Since the 1950s, feminism has significantly influenced sociology, challenging its male-stream nature.

Answer 91

• Liberal feminism – Seeks legal reforms and gradual societal change for equality. • Radical feminism – Views men as oppressors and promotes separatism. • Marxist/socialist feminism – Links capitalism to women’s oppression. • Dual systems feminism – Sees capitalism and patriarchy as intertwined. • Postmodern/poststructural feminism – Highlights differences between women (e.g., race) that impact oppression.

Answer 92

Difference feminism aligns with intersectionality and is linked to third-wave feminism. It criticizes mainstream feminism for focusing on white, middle-class women, ignoring how race, class, and other factors shape women’s experiences.

Answer 93

Malestream sociology sees society only from a male perspective.

Answer 94

Liberal feminists

Answer 95

sex refers to biological differences between males and females, such as their reproductive role, hormonal and physical differences. Gender refers to culturally constructed differences between the 'masculine' and 'feminine' roles and identities assigned to males and females. It includes the ideas that cultures hold about the abilities of males and females, such as whether they are capable of rationality. These ideas are transmitted through socialisation.

Answer 96

Radical feminism

Answer 97

True (though some individual men may benefit also).

Answer 98

Women are a source of cheap exploitable labour; a reserve army of labour; reproduce the labour force; absorb anger.

Answer 99

They argue that feminism needs to consider all women, in many different circumstances, not just White Western women.

Answer 100

The idea that all women share the same 'essence' or same fundamental characteristics and experience.

Answer 101

Oppression is not just about how women are seen, but the result of real structural inequality; the feminist movement is weakened by dividing women into many different sub-groups; poststructuralist feminism ignores the important similarities in the position of all women.

Answer 102

Traditional prejudices and stereotypes act as a barrier to inequality

Answer 103

Patriarchy

Answer 104

Subordination is the product of stereotyping or outdated attitudes. Rooted in capitalism

Answer 105

Laws, policies, traditional stereotypes

Answer 106

Patriarchy Men dominating women in relationships (sexual politics)

Answer 107

Women’s primary role = unpaid homemaker. Capitalism.

Answer 108

Laws, policies and cultural change

Answer 109

Separatism and consciousness-raising

Answer 110

Overthrow capitalism

Answer 111

Over optimistic Ignore the possibility there are deep seated structures causing women’s oppression eg. Capitalism

Answer 112

Offers no explanation of why female subordination takes different forms in different societies. Ignores class, ethnicity, etc

Answer 113

Fails to explain women’s subordination in non capitalist societies

Answer 114

Argue men and women are equally capable of performing roles in both spheres, and traditional gender roles prevent people from leading fulfilling lives

Answer 115

Patriarchy is the cause of conflict. All men oppress all women. Patriarchy is reproduced through sexual relationships

Answer 116

Capitalism causes women’s subordination

Answer 117

Oakley - sex = biological differences Gender = cultural differences

Answer 118

Brownmiller = fear of rape = deterrent of women going out alone at night Greer = matrilocal households as alternative to the heterosexual family

Answer 119

Barrett = we must give more emphasis to women consciousness and motivations, and to the role of ideology in maintaining their oppression

Answer 120

Action theories (micro theories) are sociological theories that focus on small groups and individuals rather than large-scale societal structures. They emphasize agency, viewing people as social actors who make their own decisions rather than being controlled by external forces.

Answer 121

He argued that structures (e.g., class, status) shape society but individuals also make choices. For example, Calvinists’ belief system (structure) gave religious meaning to work, motivating them to accumulate wealth (action).

Answer 122

It means understanding the meanings people attach to their actions.

Answer 123

- Instrumentally rational action: Achieving specific goals efficiently - Value rational action: Guided by beliefs or values - Traditional action: Based on habit - Affectual action: Driven by emotions

Answer 124

It avoids determinism by recognizing that individuals are not just controlled by structures but also have agency.

Answer 125

Schutz argues that Weber’s approach is too individualistic and ignores the shared nature of meanings (e.g., traffic lights work because everyone agrees on their meaning).

Answer 126

Some argue that it is impossible to fully understand the meanings others attach to their actions.

Answer 127

How people create and interpret symbols in everyday actions

Answer 128

Focuses on the small scale perspective of interaction’s between individuals, rather than large scale structures like education or law

Answer 129

Explains the individual in society and their interactions with others. Through these interactions, it helps to explain social order and change

Answer 130

Mead believed that the development of the individual was a social process and that people assign meaning to things based on their interactions. Individuals change their behaviour based on their experiences with other objects, events, ideas and people

Answer 131

- Action depends on meaning → People act based on the meanings they assign to things. (E.g., sitting under a tree because it means shade.) - Different people assign different meanings to things → Meaning is shaped by social interactions. (E.g., one person sees the tree as shade, another sees it as full of ants.) - The meaning of things can change → Meaning is not fixed and can evolve through experiences. (E.g., after being bitten by ants, a person may change their view of trees.)

Answer 132

- It does not ask the same questions as large-scale sociological theories. - It is sometimes considered supplemental rather than a full theory because it only focuses on small-scale interactions.

Answer 133

- It provides a different perspective that helps in fully understanding society. - It explains how aspects of society change through social interactions. - It treats both individuals and society as important in shaping social life.

Answer 134

If people define a situation as real, it will have real consequences and affect how they act.

Answer 135

It describes how we develop our self-concept based on how others perceive us, like a reflection in a mirror.

Answer 136

We adjust our self-concept and behavior based on how we think others see us.

Answer 137

They extend it to groups like medical students, showing how labels (e.g., “mentally ill”) shape identity and social status.

Answer 138

It is seen as too deterministic, despite interactionism emphasizing free will.

Answer 139

Remember: interactionism is generally regarded as voluntaristic (free will and choice) Labelling theory is deterministic; it sees our actions and identities as shaped by the way in which others label them. It often sees the individual as a passive victim of others' labels.

Answer 140

The dramaturgical analogy: He compares social interaction to a theatrical performance, where individuals are actors performing roles for their audiences.

Answer 141

It is the process of actively constructing and controlling the impressions we give to others by studying their responses and adjusting our behavior accordingly.

Answer 142

Functionalists see roles as tightly scripted and determined by society, while Goffman argues there is a “role distance” where individuals have flexibility in how they perform roles.

Answer 143

It is the assumption that society exists as a solid, objective reality, when in fact, it is based on shared meanings that allow cooperation.

Answer 144

They argue that while reality is socially constructed, once established, it takes on a life of its own and constrains individuals, like religious ideas becoming institutionalized in powerful structures.

Answer 145

The idea that individuals do not always fully identify with their roles and may perform them in a calculated way rather than genuinely believing in them.

Answer 146

It is seen as merely descriptive rather than explanatory, as it does not account for the origins of labels or why consistent behavioral patterns exist across society.

Answer 147

It shows how humans create meaning and negotiate meanings ## Footnote This approach avoids the determinist view of structuralism, which sees individuals as controlled by external forces.

Answer 148

It doesn't pay enough attention to the structures of society, such as class or gender inequalities ## Footnote Structuralists argue that these structures impose real constraints on human behavior.

Answer 149

'Commonsense knowledge' is akin to ruling-class ideology ## Footnote This perspective highlights how dominant ideologies shape perceptions of reality.

Answer 150

EM is trivial and only draws attention to obvious rules ## Footnote An example is a study of phone conversations showing that generally only one person speaks at a time.

Answer 151

Structural approaches and social action approaches ## Footnote These approaches are often combined for a more comprehensive understanding of society.

Answer 152

It combines structure and agency into a single, integrated theory ## Footnote Giddens argues that both structural and action theories hold some truth.

Answer 153

It signifies the interplay between structure and action ## Footnote Giddens views them as two sides of the same coin.

Answer 154

Structures make social action possible and are produced and reproduced by social actions ## Footnote This leads to the concept of the 'duality of structure'.

Answer 155

Language ## Footnote Grammar is the structure of language, created and altered by individual usage.

Answer 156

structuralism

Answer 157

False ## Footnote Structuralists argue that social structures limit individual choices.

Answer 158

• The word 'structuration' is a combination of 'structure' and 'action' - a play-on-words that shows Giddens sees them as two sides of the same coin. • Giddens's core argument is o structures make social action possible o structures are produced and reproduced by social actions • Structures facilitate actions, which in turn reproduce structures - the 'duality of structure' • e.g. Language. Grammar is the structure of language, but individuals create the structure by talking and writing in ways that follow grammatical rules. If people start to use language in a different way, then grammatical rules change.

Answer 159

Strength It shows how humans create meaning and negotiate meanings. In this way, it avoids the determinist of structuralism - seeing us as puppets on a string Limitation It doesn't pay enough attention to the structures of society, such as class or gender inequalities, and the constraints on human behaviour that come from these. Structuralists would say that we do not have free choices and that these structures are real - not just social constructions in the consciousness of individuals. Marxists would say that 'commonsense knowledge' is akin to ruling-class ideology. EM is trivial (Craib). It just draws attention to obvious rules that are of no surprise; e.g. a study in phone conversations found that, generally, only one person speaks at a time.

Answer 160

The process by which structure enables action, and action reproduces or modifies structure.

Answer 161

Structure and agency are interdependent.

Answer 162

Structure: Rules of language constrain communication; Agency: People use and change language.

Answer 163

* Rules * Resources * Ontological Security

Answer 164

Norms, customs, and laws that guide behavior.

Answer 165

Economic and social resources maintain existing structures.

Answer 166

The desire for stability and predictability in life.

Answer 167

People monitor their actions and effects, deciding whether to continue or change them.

Answer 168

Feminism and LGBTQ+ activism challenging and reshaping societal structures.

Answer 169

Giddens overestimates people’s ability to change society.

Answer 170

Individuals often lack the power to change structures even if they desire it.

Answer 171

It balances the concepts of structure and agency.

Answer 172

individual agency

Answer 173

* Economic (money, technology) * Social (power, status)

Answer 174

It tends to reproduce existing structures.

Answer 175

Tradition no longer dictates behavior as strongly.

Answer 176

Institutional anomie theory (Messner & Rosenfeld) - capitalist economies generate more strain In the West, economic goals are valued above all others. Hence schools gearing pupils to the labour market.

Sociological Theory Paper 1 And 3 Flashcards

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