Paper 3: Forests Under Threat Flashcards
(175 cards)
1
Q
What does biodiversity mean?
A
The number of different plant and animals species in an area.
2
Q
Statistics on animal and plant species in the Amazon rainforest:
A
-16,000 different tree species
-40,000 different plant species
-1300 bird species
-6 different sloth species
-10% of the worlds plants and animals live in the Amazon rainforest.
(In comparison the UK only have 30 native tree species)
3
Q
Why is biodiversity exceptionally high in rainforests?
A
- Climate is suitable for all year round growth and reproduction.
- Rainforests are ancient and have a stable climate different species have evolved to be better suited there.
- the multiple layers in the rainforest provide numerous different specialised habitats. Plants and animals have evolved to take advantage of these.
4
Q
What do all rainforests have in common?
A
The equatorial climate.
- there is no dry season with at least 60mm of rainfall each month; some get 3m of rain each year.
- Temperatures are high at 26°c-32°c all year round meaning no winter or summer.
5
Q
What factors mean rainforests can grow continuously, with a huge abundance of life both animal and plants?
A
Continuous heat, water and sunlight are available all year-round meaning this can occur.
6
Q
Describe the emergent layer in the rainforest:
A
Hardwood, evergreen trees that have broken through the dense canopy layer below to reach sunlight. Monkey and birds live up here. Trees are 165 ft +.
7
Q
Describe the canopy layer of the rainforest:
A
Dense canopy layer is where most the animals in the rainforest live. 30% of world birds love here. 2/3 of animals in rainforest live here. Most animals live here because there is much food here.
8
Q
Describe the under canopy layer in the rainforest:
A
Little sunshine reaches this sees, so plants have to grow larger leaves to reach sunlight. Plants seldom grow to 12ft. Home to a large concentration of insects. Contains young trees trying to reach canopy.
9
Q
Describe the forest floor:
A
Very dark, almost no plants grow here and the ones that do have leaves with a large SA. As hardly any sun reaches the forest floor things decay quickly. Only 1/10 million seeds grow here. Plants have large leaves and animals such as, Jaguars live here.
10
Q
What are drip tip leaves and how are they adapted?
A
Most rainforests plants have thick, waxy leaves with drip tips; these shed water quickly to prevent leaves rotting.
11
Q
What are lianas and how are they adapted?
A
These climbing plants use trees as their ‘trunk’ - their stems cling to trees and climb up to the sunlight in the canopy, while getting water and nutrients from the soil below.
12
Q
What are Epiphytes and how are they adapted?
A
These plants live in the canopy on trees and have evolved to get all their nutrients form water and air rather than the soil (which is 10 meters below)so their roots dangle in mid air.
13
Q
How are evergreen hardwood trees adapted for the rainforest?
A
Mahogany, teak and ebony trees have tall slender trunks with no branches on them, but huge triangular buttress roots. The roots support the enormous weight of the tree; leaves and branches and are only at the very top, where the sunlight is.
14
Q
How are plans and trees in the rainforest adapted?
A
- buttress roots
- drip tip leaves
- lianas
- epiphytes
15
Q
How are sloths adapted for the rainforest?
A
- huge claws allow them to hang upside down in their branches, while their fur grows away from their feet to help shed rain when upside down.
- green algae growing in their fur helps camouflage the from predators.
16
Q
How are primates adapted for the rainforest?
A
- lemurs and monkeys have evolved to love in the canopy where most of their food is.
- their long tails are used for balance and most have strong claws to grip trees and branches.
17
Q
How are big cats adapted for the rainforest?
A
- Jaguars, tigers and leopards all have camouflaged fur.
- the dark and light fur patches blend in with the shade and sunlight on the forest floor.
18
Q
How are birds adapted for the rainforest?
A
-Rainforest birds have very loud calls because it is easier to her a mate than see them in the dense canopy; parrots and macaws have powerful beaks to break open nuts.
19
Q
Rainforest statistics:
A
- covers 7% of earths rainforest
- home to 1/2 of earths species.
- Amazon is 2.5million mile square.
- 6000 mammal species
- 70,000 different insect species
- 260 inches of rain each each year
- 4000 mile long Amazon river(2nd largest river)
20
Q
Key words for tropical rainforest nutrient cycle:
A
Inputs: something put into a system.
Outputs: something produced by a system.
Store: where something is kept.
Flow: how something moved from one store into another.
Recycling: how material/ energy is used in a system.
21
Q
What are nutrients?
A
All plants need nutrients grow. These are tiny amounts of chemical elements and compounds like nitrogen, potassium, phosphates and magnesium that plants need.
22
Q
How do animals affect the nutrient cycle when they eat and die?
A
When nutrients are eaten by animals nutrients feed into them. As animals die, those nutrients are recycled - so they move around biomes via the nutrient cycle.
23
Q
What external factors affect the nutrient cycle?
A
- nutrients can be added to an ecosystem by PRECIPITATION and WEATHERING.
- they can also be removed by runoff or leaching(when nutrients are washed out of the soil by water moving through it.)
- they are taken up from the soil as plants (or biomass) grow.
- they are returned to to it when they die; first as litter (or decaying leaves and twigs) on the soil surface and then back into the soil as litter decays.
24
Q
What is the purpose of the nutrient cycle?
A
To keep soil healthy. Nutrients move between biomass, litter and soil in a continuous cycle.
25
What are the key differences between the rainforest nutrient cycle and the theoretical nutrient cycle in normal biomes?
- larger biomass store: layers of vegetation and huge trees store large amounts of nutrients.
- smaller litter store and large decay transfer: in hot, wet conditions bacteria and fungi decay dead matter quickly, returning nutrients to the soil.
- larger growth transfer: plants grow all year, so draw nutrients up from the soil rapidly.
- larger weathering input: chemical weathering processes (e.g solution) are faster in hot wet climates, so release nutrients into the soil from rocks.
- a larger leaching output: Heavy rainfall throughout the year brings in nutrients, but the constant flow of water through the soil removes them (leaching).
26
What are the 2 affects on the nutrient cycle when trees are cut down?
- without the forest to protect it, litter and soil are easily eroded by heavy rains.
- as rainforest soils contain few nutrients, land cannot be farmed for long before having to move on.
27
What is a food web?
A complex network of overlapping food chains that connect plants and animals in biomes.
28
What is a food chain?
A simple chain that shows which, animals each what and how nutrients and energy are transferred through the animals up the chain.
29
What is the basic energy source for food webs?
Sunlight for plants to carry out photosynthesis to convert energy in the form of glucose. As one organism feeds on another, energy passes between them.
30
What can happen if food webs are disrupted?
Food webs represent a delicate balance between species. If disrupted, biodiversity can be reduced. E.g. if certain trees are cleared, or a species of plant dies because of a disease then primary consumers that eat it will suffer as their food source has gone.
31
Why are food webs in the rainforest so complex?
Most animals are quite selective about what they eat creating more complex food webs.
32
What are the differences between detrivores and decomposers?
Detrivore: they consume their material to break it down. E.g insect, maggot.
Decomposer: don’t eat their food, decompose it externally (e.g bacteria/ fungi)
33
What is the taiga like?
Largest biome on earths surface. Stretches from 50°N-70°N, across northern parts of Asia, North America, covers most of Canada, Alaska, Finland, Sweden and parts of Russia. It is a subarctic climate. Covers a vast 390 million km squared, makes up 30%of worlds remaining forest.
34
What is the Taigas climate like?
- Subarctic climate
- dominated by cold winters, average temperature rarely above 16°c and can reach -40°c in the winter.
- Low precipitation rates at around 350-750mm a year, snow remains on ground for many months.
- short wet summers of three months when temperatures can rise up to 20°c.
- long cold dry winters with several months below freezing as low as -20°c.
35
What are the trees in the Taiga like?
The trees are coniferous(evergreen) and have adapted to cold climate- their shape allow snow to fall, instead of weighing on branches and their pine needles prevent damage by wind or snow.
36
What is the Taiga also called?
Boreal forest
37
Why is biodiversity in the Taiga low?
- Plants and animals can only survive if they are specially adapted to the cold climate; that means reptiles and amphibians are rare.
- the growing season in on 4-5 months long, meaning in winter there is little food.
Animals have to adapt to very cold winters. Plant stop growing, snow cover makes grazing even dead plants difficult and temperatures are bitterly cold.
38
How are organisms adapted in the Taiga?
Many mammals have thick, oily fur to help retain body heat and provide water proofing.
Because food is scarce, some animals hibernate e.g bears, bats and squirrels.
300 species of birds live in the Taiga in the summer, eating insects and breeding. However, another 270 species migrate away for winter because of the cold and lack of food.
39
How are wolves adapted for the Taiga?
- coats made up of woolly fur to provide insulation with long guard hairs to keep put moisture.
- large paws have fleshy pads and claws for traction and can spread to provide better support in the snow.
- smell 100x better than humans and sight 20x better. their vision is motion sensitive so can see well in the dark.
40
How are grizzly bears adapted Taiga?
- omnivores so can survive on both plants and animals.
- fur coat have many layers of fur keeping it warm in winter.
- its claws are the right length to climb trees that surround its forest home.
- hibernate to avoid having to find food in winter.
- layer of flat to allow them to stay in their dens in the winter.
41
How are long eared owls adapted Taiga?
- camouflage- bark like fur
- sharp claws to cling onto branches.
- eyes have adapted to see things far away. Sharp ears to hear noises far away e.g pray.
42
How are Canada lynx’s adapted Taiga?
Its feet have fur covered pads and are silent in the snow so it can ambush pray as its not a very fast animal. It distributes its weight to make it silent.
43
How are coniferous trees adapted Taiga?
-thick bark to protect against the cold. Cons shaped with flexible branches which help them cope with heavy snow fall.
44
How are needle like leaves adapted Taiga?
- thin and waxy to reduce water loss.
- evergreen nature mean that the needles can photosynthesise wherever this is sufficient light.
- prevent damage form frost.
45
How are shallow tree roots adapted for the Taiga?
- wide shallow tree roots to support the tree but avoid frozen ground.
- get nutrients from soil top as they have shallow roots.
46
How are white spruce’s adapted for the Taiga?
- needles retain heat/shed snow and lose less water.
| - waxy coating on needle keeps water in.
47
What does net primary productivity mean? (NPP)
This is a measure of how much new plant and animal growth - or biomass - is added to a biome each year, measure in grams per square meter per year.
48
When is net productivity highest?
When there is plenty of sunlight, high temperatures and precipitation. Biomes with cold or dry seasons have lower productivity.
49
What is the NPP in tropical rainforests?
2200 grams/square meter/per year
50
What is the NPP in temperate forests?
1200 grams/square meter/per year
51
What is the NPP in the Taiga (boreal rainforest)?
800 grams/square meter/per year
52
What is the NPP in the tundra?
140 grams/square meter/per year
53
Why are their smaller flows of nutrients between stores and smaller stores in the Taiga?
- precipitation is lower and chemical weathering is limited by cold temperatures.
- most nutrients are in litter because not much decaying happens as it is so cold so bacteria and fungi struggle to decay the litter.
- the biomass store is small because trees grow for only a few months of the year.
- The soil is permafrost, so is frozen so not much can grow here.
54
What does deforestation mean?
Means the deliberate cutting down of forests to exploit forest resources (timber, land and minerals).
55
What is a direct threat to the rainforest?
Involves deliberate cutting down of trees for timber, to make roads or to convert the forest to farmland.
56
What are indirect threats to the rainforest?
Come from pollution, global warming or disease.
57
How many species get extinct each year?
40,000 species die each year which is about 109 a day. However, in the next 50 years we will only loose 0.7% of all species.
58
What reasons do deforestation occur?
- Poverty
- debt
- economic development
- demand for resources
59
Why does deforestation occur because of poverty?
In many LICs local people cut down small areas of forest for land to farm because they have no other way of making a living.
Cutting rainforests down requires people, therefore reducing unemployment.
60
Why is economic development a risk to the rainforest?
Most tropical forests are in the developing world. In order to develop their economies, forest is sacrificed in place of roads, expanding cities, and to dam rivers and build hydroelectricity power (HEP) stations.
For a developing city trading goods is important to make good trading links.
61
Why is a countries debt a risk to the rainforest?
If a government is in debt they can sell valuable resources from rainforest to other countries and get profit and then pay their debt off. So countries are driven to cut down forests, export timber, or grow cash crops to pay off debts.
62
Why is demand for resources a risk to the rainforest?
Tropical rainforests contain raw materials. These include timber, but also oil, gas, iron ore and gold. To get these, forests have been destroyed. Land also needed to feed growing populations.
Expensive rainforest goods for medical industry (herbs and special plants).
63
What percentage of the rainforests is used for what?
Cattle ranching- 60%
Small scale, subsistence agriculture- 33%
Fires, mining,urbanisation, road construction, dams- 3%
Logging, legal and illegal- 3%
Large scale commercial agriculture including soybeans- 1%
64
What is mineral exploration?
Coltan is a mineral used in mobiles. It is dug from the ground form shallow mines by poor families, and sold for a few pence to TNCs (middlemen who sell it on). Large areas of forest are cleared to dig mines.
65
What is hydroelectricity power?
E.g the Tucurui Dam in Amazonia, Brazil. The dam opened in 1985 and cost US$6billion. Most of the electricity is used for iron ore and bauxite mines owned by mining TNCs like Vale, especially the worlds largest iron ore mine at Grand Carajas. The reservoir flooded 1750km squared of rainforest and the mines it power still cause deforestation.
66
What are biofuels and how do they affect the rainforest?
E.g palm oil in Indonesia. Indonesia has 6 million hectares of palm oil plantations and plans another 4 million. Palm oil is a tropical plant whose fruit contains oil used in cosmetics and foods e.g shampoo. It is increasingly used to make biodiesel. Huge areas of rainforest are burnt for plantations.
67
What causes different rates of deforestation?
Poverty- in low-income countries (LICs) like Burundi.
The palm oil industry in Indonesia.
Protection of forest in some middle-income counties (MICs) e.g Malaysia, Brazil, which have lower rates of deforestation.
Isolation- e.g the Democratic Republic of Congo has very low rates of deforestation because it is inaccessible. The rate is likely to increase as forest is opened up and poverty drives people to cut it down.
68
Give some examples of direct threats to the rainforest:
HEP: Needed to produce electricity and also help to control flooding.
Transport: e.g roads. These divides up parts of the rainforest and can cut of connections between different systems.
Mining: the Amazon includes bauxite, iron ore, gold, silver and diamond.
Cattle ranching: brings money into the country and provides food and jobs for the countries growing population.
Agricultural/farming: provides food for the rainforest communities and poor landless people of Brazil.
Logging: tropical hardwood such as, ebony and mahogany can be sold for a good price abroad.
69
What would happen if temperatures rose by 1°c?
10% of land species face extinction. Alpine, mountain and tundra biomes shrink as temperature rise.
70
What would happen if there was a 2°c rise on temperature?
15-40% of land species face extinction. Biomes begin to shift towards the poles and animal migration patterns and breeding time change. Extreme weather at unusual times of the year, such as heat waves and blizzards, affect pollination and migration.
71
What would happen if there 3°c rise in temperature?
20%-50% land species face extinction.
Forest biomes are stressed by drought and fire risk increases on grassland. Flooding causes the loss of coastal mangroves. Pests and diseases thrive in the rising temperatures, such as bark beetles, which devastate coniferous forests.
72
What affects are global warming having in our planet already?
-plants are flowering earlier
-bird migration pattern are changing
-the arctic tundra is warming rapidly
-vegetation zones are shifting towards the Poles by 6km every 10 years.
Global warming is occurring too rapidly for many species to adapt to changing climates. A rise of 3°C could happen as soon as 2060.
73
What are the main indirect threats and what are they caused by?
Main indirect threat is global warming. Rising populations and resource consumption add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, which causes the climate to change.
74
How much carbon dioxide does Brazil emit?
It emits only 1.5% of the global carbon dioxide.
75
What happened in the Amazon in 2005 and 2010?
Suffered severe droughts which was not unusual. And they were very close together. In 2005 it was described as a ‘1 in 100 year’ drought.
During these droughts the Amazon switches from absorbing carbon dioxide to emitting it because plants stopped growing and so stopped absorbing carbon dioxide. Forest fires broke out also increasing carbon dioxide levels.
76
How did drought put the rainforest eco system under stress?
- dried the leaf litter so decomposers organisms die out, threatening the nutrient cycle.
- causing leaves in the canopy to die, reducing the food supply and affecting food webs.
77
What did scientists argue when drought struck the southern Amazonia in 2014?
- deforestation is making droughts more common and more severe.
- with fewer trees, there is less evaporation and transpiration. This means fewer clouds and less rain.
78
What is the fear regarding permanent damage due to drought in the rainforest?
The fear is rainforests will suffer permanent damage and die back. As this happens, they could become sources of carbon dioxide and emit it rather than absorb it. This could accelerate global warming even more, making problems worse. Drought also increases the risk of forest fires. Some scientists think that by 2100 between 30% and 60% of the Amazon rainforest could become a dry savanna.
79
How much oxygen does the Amazon absorb?
It produces 20%of global oxygen and is often closed the ‘lungs of the planet’ . The Amazon also contains 2 million different insect species.
80
Why has the rate of deforestation decreased since 2004?
- since 2006 an area the size of France has been protected by government.
- the global recession and credit crunch since 2008 have reduced demand for resources.
- the government has cracked down on illegal logging and clearance for cattle ranching by seizing land and freezing bank accounts.
- the forest code law, requiring landowners to preserve up to 80% of forest they own, has been strictly enforced.
- Brazilians have become more ‘green’; 19% voted for Green Party candidates in 2010 election.
81
How much deforestation have forests seen on a global scale between 2000-2013 and where?
```
Canada-Taiga-21.4%
Russia-Taiga-20.4%
Brazil-Rainforest-14.2%
USA-Taiga-6.1%
Bolivia-Rainforest-4.2%
Indonesia-Rainforest-3.7%
```
82
What type of intact forests are being deforests more.
- primary, original rainforests, not secondary or replanted forests.
- forests that have never been deforested.
- large forest areas that allow animals to move and migrate.
83
What are the 3 main direct threats to the Taiga?
- logging
- mining
- HEP (Hydroelectricity power)
84
Where does deforestation occur more and what areas does it have a bigger impact on?
Deforestation occurs more in the Taiga but only 8% of it has been destroyed because it is much bigger than the rainforests so therefore even though it occurs more in the Taiga it has a bigger impact on the rainforest as there is less of it with more of the worlds species.
85
Why is the Taiga deforested more?
- biome is vast, despite Canadian and Russian deforestation only 8%of Taiga has been lost.
- much of the Taiga is isolated in frozen northern latitude so people can’t see it happening.
- there are less ‘cute and cuddly’ species under threat, which people care about. E.g koalas in the rainforests.
86
How much rainforest can Russia and Canada account for between 2000-2013?
40% of global deforestation happens by these countries affecting the Taiga.
87
How much soft wood trees are cut down and what are they used for?
80% of trees cut down a year are soft wood. They are used for:
- construction timber: roof beams, window and door frames.
- board: chip board and fibre board used for flooring and furniture.
88
What is strip mining?
Involves digging large holes in the ground to extract ores and minerals that are close to the surface.
Also known as open cast, open pit or surfacing mining.
89
Why are tar sands in Canada valuable?
Because deforestation makes way for mineral and fossil fuel exploitation, dams as well as mining. Besides oil and gas extraction there are diamond, gold and iron ore and other metal mines. There are over 4000 mines in the province Ontario, Canada alone. The creation of mines also leads to the creation of infrastructure such as roads and other transport links.
90
What is the James Bay HEP project in Canada?
- Water stored behind dams is used to generate HEP.
- it is located close to the Hudson Bay in Quebec, Canada.
- one of the worlds HEP plants generating 16,500MW of electricity.
- built between 1974-2012 and has cost over US$20billion.
91
What are the impacts of the James Bay HEP project in Canada?
- 11,000km squared of Taiga forest has been flooded during construction.
- Mercury (a poison) was released as the flooded forests decayed in the reservoirs, polluting the Rupert and La Grande rivers, getting into to the food web and via fish into the local Cree Indian population.
- the roads, dams and electricity pylons have have disrupted to migration of the caribou birds.
92
What are the Anthabasca Tar sands in Canada?
- Tar sands are a mixture of fossil fuel oil and sediment that can be mined and heated to separate the oil.
- Tar sands lie under an area of Taiga about 150,000km squared.
- 500km squared has been mined so far.
- estimates suggest the Tar sands could hold 1.7 trillion barrels of oil.
- Tar sands are either extracted by deforesting the Taiga or by steaming out Tar so it melts and can be collected.
93
What are the impacts of the Anthabasca Tar sands in Canada?
- Both methods destroy the Taiga/ forest and produce toxic waste collecting in tailings ponds.
- mining uses 2-4 tonnes of water for every tonne of oil produced, plus natural gas to heat water into steam.
94
What factors create wild forest fires in the Taiga?
- summers can be hot and sometimes dry.
- the thick carpet of pine needles litter is perfect tinder to help start a fire.
- summer storms generate lightning strikes.
- coniferous trees contain sticky resin that burn easily.
95
What are the negative impacts of wild fires in the Taiga?
- fire resistant species begin to dominate, reducing biodiversity.
- trees that cannot tolerate fire begin to decline and so do the birds and insects that feed of them and live in them.
- continuous fires mean that trees will not be able to regenerate and therefore mature between fires.
96
What are the positive impacts of wild fires in the Taiga?
- aspen and birch trees sprout from burned stumps.
| - Black spruce jack pine and lodge pine cones open up when burned, releasing seeds.
97
What is a wildfire?
Uncontrolled burning through a forest, grassland or scrub. Such fires can ‘jump’ roads and rivers and travel at speed.
98
Give an example of a serious wildfire in the past in the Taiga and it’s impacts:
In North Alberta Canada, there was almost a record size wild fire in June 2011. It burned 70,000 hectares of Taiga between May and September 2011.
99
What is an invasive species?
A plants, animal or disease that introduced from one area to another area which causes damage to the ecosystem.
100
Why have wild fires increase in the Taiga since the 1990s?
Wild fires have become larger and more frequent in areas such as Alaska, Canada and Russia. Scientists argue that this is caused by global warming, with hotter, drier summers. The Taiga does need wild fires but too many cause long term destruction.
101
Why has the Taiga had an increase in the number of pests and diseases in recent years?
The Taiga is home to thousands of pests and diseases, normally kept in check by the cold winters which kills a lot of them off. However, due to the warmer winters their numbers have increased and cause serious infestations and diseases, especially in coniferous trees.
102
What are the 3 consequences of pests and diseases?
- they reduce commercial value of rainforest, preventing it from being sold as timber.
- they dramatically alter the ecosystem. Killing tree species alters the food web.
- they change the landscape to a dense forest to a more open landscape with fewer trees.
103
Why is biodiversity reduced by pests and diseases?
Because only forest trees that can resist pests and diseases grow in this area. The same applies to the animals that require these trees to love on and eat of for survival.
104
What affect does the spruce bark beetle have on the Taiga?
- Alaska’s climate has been severely affected by this.
- In Kenai Peninsula 2.5 million hectares of spruce have been destroyed by the beetle.
- the beetles bore in to the spruce trees eventually killing them.
- warmer winters due to global warming stop many beetle larvae from dying in the winter causing infestations.
- Large storms again linked to global warming cause trees to blow down causing the beetles to fly of into new areas and start infecting them.
105
What affect does the mountain pine needle have on the Taiga?
- it has destroyed 1.6 million hectares of lodge pole pine forest in British Colombia, Canada.
- they introduce a fungus to the trees, and both the fungus and the feeding beetle larvae cut of the flow of water to the tree causing it to die.
- global warming with its warmer winters has been linked to the increased infestation of this pest.
106
What affect does the white pine blister rust have on the Taiga?
- a fungal disease that affects white pine trees.
- Around the 1900s it was accidentally introduced from Europe to North America, so it’s an invasive species.
- white pine trees were once an economically important tree for commercial logging in Quebec, Canada, but blister rust devastated the trees and prevented them regrowing.
107
How does acid rain form?
Fossil fuels are burn releasing, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, sulphur dioxide and water vapour in to the atmosphere.
These react with water in the clouds forming to form sulphuric and nitric acids.
Precipitation carries theses acids down to the surface.
108
What are the negative impacts of acid rain in the Taiga?
- it pollutes lakes and rivers lowering their pH which affects fish and insects and kills their eggs p/preventing the, from hatching.
- this means migrating birds that come to these areas have a lower food supply, killing some of them.
- it damages needles (e.g spruce) affecting their ability to photosynthesis.
- when Taiga soils become to acidic the oils release aluminium compounds which damage tree roots.
- damaged soils contain less calcium and magnesium, essential plant nutrients.
- weaker roots can’t take up nutrients.
- weaker trees are more vulnerable to disease or insect infestations and less fire resistant.
109
What is acid rain?
All rain is naturally acidic but acid rain is rain with a pH lower than 5.7.
110
What are the indirect threats to the Taiga?
Climate change
Wild fires
Acidic rain
(All caused from climate change)
111
What are some of the immediate affects of climate change in the Taiga?
-destruction of animal habitants.
-can cause some animal and plant species to extinct or be endangered.
-more floods, droughts, storms and extremes temperatures.
-warmer winters/warmer average temperature.
-animal and plant species may have to change and adapt to live in new climate.
-change time of growing season
Permafrost could melt.
112
What are the main indirect threats to the rainforest?
Global warming
| Climate stress
113
How will global warming affect the rainforest?
- no plants will grow
- soil will dry out
- species will go extinct
- water evaporation will increase so more droughts.
- trees may start to emit their carbon stores a CO2 rather than absorb it.
114
How will climate stress affect the rainforest?
- more hurricanes=potential to wipe out plants and trees.
- could affect nutrient cycle.
- drought=dry soil= dead plants.
- more flooding=saturated soil= drowned plants.
- extinction of some species.
- cause rainforest conditions to change.
115
What had caused the indirect threats to the rainforest?
Rising population and resource consumption add green house gases to the atmosphere causing climate change.
116
Why do tropical rainforests need protecting?
- home to over 1/2 worlds species and him to rare species.
- regulates the nutrient recycle.
- it is being destroyed rapidly.
- 40,000 species die a year (109 a day)
- regulates atmosphere and keeps balance between carbon dioxide and oxygen.
- regulates water cycle.
- valuable biome.
117
What does CITES stand for and what do they do?
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species.
This is an international treaty that ban cross border trade of certain species. It came to force in 1975 and has been adopted by 180 countries.
118
What does REDD stand for and what do they do?
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation.
This is a United Nations project whose purpose it is to stop deforestation. (Which is the main cause of global warming. 20% of of all CO2 emissions come from deforestation).
119
What are some of the positive impacts of CITES?
- It has very large international influence-181 countries have signed up to CITES.
- CITES targets the right problems- most trade in illegal species in international
- Roughly 5,600 species of animals and 30,000 species of plants are protected by CITES against over-exploitation through national trade.
- extremely harsh penalties exist for poaching endangered animal or being caught smuggling them.
- protects the biodiversity of the TRF which local people are dependant in for basic survival.
- it has proved to be successful. E.g reducing ivory trade and halting the decline of African elephants.
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What are some of the negative impacts of CITES?
- lots of money is required to check that all the countries should be following the rules to protect them against trade in endangered species. LICs can’t afford setting up and moderating a policing system to prevent this from happening.
- illegal trade in TRF products is increasing, not decreasing because demand remains high so it is worth it.
- CITES cannot monitor 181 countries at one time.
- CITES makes it harder and means a longer time to get permits for captive breed animals than wild animals which could encourage more poaching.
- it protects species, not an ecosystem so does not orient deforestation.
- species have to be under threat to ‘get on the list’ by which time the problem may too serious to solve.
- global warming could undermine its success.
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What is the CITES aim?
CITES ban cross-border trade of in listed species. By stopping the buying and selling of endangered species, the hope is that illegal hunting and collecting will stop.
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What are some of the positive impacts of REDD?
- makes poor forest management, such as indiscriminate unenforceable logging, less profitable than the suitable alternative.
- REDD involves payments to developing countries that will prevent deforestation or degradation that would have otherwise taken place.
- the payment go toward actions that enable developing countries to conserve or sustainably use their forests e.g selective logging.
- funding rewards go to good forest management in developing countries.
- helps give local people more control and teaches them new skills.
- preventing deforestation means that biodiversity is increased and there is more carbon capture,p.
- it is cheap in comparison to other activities e.g carbon capture or renewable energy.
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What are some of the negative impacts of CITES?
- stopping cattle ranches and soya farming could reduce the amount of food causing raising food prices.
- some believe that it allows developed countries to doge responsibly to cut down CO2 emissions.
- REDD payment could weaken land and resource rights for forest-dependant communities.
- lots of political challenges e.g disagreement between countries.
- requires green house gas emission to be monitored to show impact which can be expensive.
- conservation in one area simply shifts deforestation into another.
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What are the aims of REDD?
- reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation.
- conservation and enhancement of forest carbon stocks.
- sustainable management of forests.
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How does REDD work?
It works through governments and TNCs in developed countries funding projects to conserve forests in developing countries. Their motive is to offset their own CO2 emissions and thus meet their emission reduction targets. Some argue that this is a easy way for developed countries to appear to reduce their CO2 pollution without actually reducing it.
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What is a conservation?
This means protecting a threatened biomes. E.g setting up national parks or banning trade of endangered species.
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What are the positive impacts of the Juma SFR?
- without protection 60% of the Juma forest would be lost by 2050.
- incomes have been risen by the Bolsa Floresta scheme.
- Ecotourism is being developed in the area to provide extra tourism for families within Juma.
- it protects a large enough area to support carnivores and large primates.
- the funding has built 7 schools, trained people in sustainable farming and provided a cleaner source of water and energy.
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What are the negative impacts of the Juma SFR?
- local people have signed away their rights to use material within the forest reserve.
- Juma SFR relies on donations and if these stop the project itself may be stopped.
- money for families is less than $1 per day, where as the reserve manager wars $25,000 per year.
- large area is hard to police/monitor therefore illegal logging can still take place.
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What is the Juma Sustainable Forest Reserve (SFR)?
This is an area of pristine tropical forest in the Amazon 230km south of Manaus. First protected in 2006. It is Brazil’s first REDD project.
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Who is the Juma SFR run by?
Run by the Amazonas Sustainable Foundation, an NGO. Local people are paid not to cut down the rainforest.
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How is the Juma SFR run by the Amazonal Sustainable Foundation and NGOs?
- the money to pay for the conservation is donated by the TNC Marriott hotel, Bradesco Bank and the regional government of the Amazonas state.
- families that live in Juma SFR are paid $28 per month (given to the woman as she doesn’t work meaning the husband can go out and earn an income) if they agree in to deforest the area. This programme is called the ‘Bolsa Floresta’ programme.
- the idea is to give people an alternative income so they don’t need to cut the forest.
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How populated is Juma SFR?
- 5880 kmsq
- 35 villages
- total population of 2400 people.
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What is biodiversity if Juma SFR like?
- 21 different primate species.
- 430 different bird species.
- only 1%of the Juma area has been deforested.
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What is sustainable forest management?
This is one way of conserving the rainforest. It conserves the forest by ensuring it is not being used faster that they can be renewed.
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What are the benefits from sustainable forest management?
Economic:reducing poverty by creating income from from alternative livelihoods e.g ecotourism and sustainable farming.
Social: may include improving facilities that benefit the community. E.g health clinics and schools.
Environmental: protecting forest biodiversity and other resources, rivers; using renewable energy to limit pollution.
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What factors cause an increase in the rate of deforestation?
-E.g: Democratic Republic of Congo, Indonesia and Nigeria.
- wide spread rural poverty forces people to cut down forest for resources.
- war and conflict make it difficult to protect the forest.
- weak laws and little money are available to protect the forest.
- industrialisation drives forest destruction for timber, fossils fuels and other resources.
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What factors cause a decrease in deforestation rates?
E.g: Brazil, Costa Rica, Colombia
- strong forest protection laws; fines for illegal deforestation.
- increasing conservation in national parks and reserves, which are monitored.
- larger urban population with fewer poor people depending directly on the forest.
- public opinion supports forest conservation.
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Where is the Kilum-ljim?
Located in Africa, Cameroon, latitude 1°N-13°N.
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How is the Kilum-lijim sustainable forest management sustainable?
Agroforestry-plants crops and trees together (crops planted under rainforest trees). Maintains biodiversity of of agricultural land.
Agriculture-locals make money from forest sustainability.
Beehives in forest-prevents forest fires as they want to protect beehives. This use local materials and produces unique honey as income rather than deforestation.
Selective logging- some tree cover is maintained. There is small scale clearance with replanting.
Ecotourism: multiple zoning, hunting, conservation and tourism.
Extractive reserve: e.g rubber, nuts.
The forest reserve is protected with limited human interference. Size of reserve is large enough to support wildlife. Tree cover is maintained on watershed. Tree cover in watersheds reduces flood risks and and improves quality and quantity of water.
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What are the negative social impacts of the Kilum-lijim reserve?
Sustainable forest management usually provides fewer jobs - locals won’t benefit.
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What are the negative economic impacts of the Kilum-lijim reserve?
Economic benefits only seen in long term. Do not benefit people straight away. E.g poorer countries who need income immediately
Sustainable forestry is usually more expensive-difficult to persuade companies to adopt these methods.
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What are the negative environmental impacts of the Kilum-lijim reserve?
Areas replanted for logging in the future can be slow growing - companies may cut down more natural forest.
Even selective logging can damage lots of trees in the process of removing target trees.
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What does sustainability mean?
Ensures that future generations can access the environment while current generations use it effectively for social, economic and environmental gain.
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The Cameroon rainforest has....
107 million hectares of forest.
Attracts over 29,000 tourists a year.
Has the 2nd highest concentration of biodiversity.
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What is the Kilum-lijim reserve and why is it under pressure?
It is an area of mountain forest in Cameroon, home to 35 communities from three tribes (Kom, Nso, Cku). 250,000 people live a days walk from the rainforest.
It is under pressure from farming and logging for timber and fuels.
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What groups/organisations take part in the Kilum-lijim forest management reserve?
In 1978 the conservation organisation Bird Life International started a project to create a sustainable forest reserve.
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What did the organisations and communities do to begin protecting the tropical rainforest in the Kilum-lijim reserve?
They came together with the:
-Cameroon Ministry of the Environment and Forestry.
-Kew Gardens in London
-UK department of International development
(To receive funding).
In order to...
- mark out the rainforest reserve area and make lists of forest resources.
- developed rules for sustainable use for the rainforest.
- set up a unit to manager and monitor forest.
- educated communities about replanting trees and a safe levels of hunting and logging.
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How has the Kilum-lijim reserve project been successful?
-50% of the Kilum-lijim forest would have been deforested between 1958-88 but instead the forest has increased by 8% since the project began.
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What challenges is the Kilum-lijim forest likely to face in the future?
- population growth is bound to increase pressure to deforested areas.
- urban areas, industry and even roads could encroach forest.
- money and technical support from international donars could end.
- climate change could begin to degrade the forest.
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What alternative livelihoods has the Kilum-lijim project provided to local people?
Agroforestry:
- sustainable forestry- crops are grown between trees so the trees are not cut.
- crops of different heights are grown together (bananas, maize and peppers) called inter-cropping. It helps protect the soil from from erosion and reduces pest numbers.
Ecotourism:
- small scale, low impact tourism.
- appeals to tourist interested in nature and wildlife.
- tourists stay with local families, eat their food so gain sense of cultural community. More likely to do at money and help their cause.
- money from tourists go directly to local people.
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What is deforestation?
The cutting down of forests and trees on a massive scale?
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Define human activity:
Deforestation that occurs for cattle ranching, farming and logging.
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Why should the Taiga forest be protected?
- melting permafrost means large scale flooding.
- unique biome so habitat and animals need protecting as well as their migration routes e.g caribou.
- further removal of trees on a massive scale would increase CO2 levels as less trees to absorb it. Trees are a carbon store so help slow down and reduce global warming.
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What ways are the Taiga being protected and created?
Creating wilderness: an area of undisturbed human activity.
National parks: an area mostly in natural state to protect biodiversity.
sustainable forestry: ways of harvesting forest without damaging it in the long term.
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What are the strengths of creating areas of wilderness in the Taiga?
- has the biggest level of protection - most human activity is banned.
- unsustainable human activity such as logging/mining are not permitted.
- usually covers a large scale - so large scale processes can still take place.
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What are the weaknesses of creating areas of wilderness in the Taiga?
-large remote areas are had to manage and police.
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What are the strengths of creating national parks in the Taiga?
- May be established to protect certain species.
| - good access for tourists and recreational users.
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What are the weaknesses of creating national parks in the Taiga?
-pressure on companies to build roads and facilities for humans.
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What are the strengths of sustainable forestry in the Taiga?
- means some trees remain.
- limits placed on the number of trees felled(cut down).
- companies may be required to regenerate areas after logging.
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What are the weaknesses of sustainable forestry in the Taiga?
- Different groups of people may not agree with the rules and restrictions on forestry e.g loggers/governments/indigenous people.
- some countries struggle to enforce restrictions e.g Russia (lots of illegal logging takes place.
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Why do some believe the Taiga should be protected?
- many indigenous people e.g the Sami people of Scandinavia depend on the forest for their traditional way of life.
- Taiga forests store lots of carbon - deforestation will release this which causes global warming.
- it is one of the last untouched biomes.
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Why do some believe the Taiga should be exploited?
- the demand of resources are increasing- people need wood, fuel and minerals that the forest provides.
- forest industries provide a lot of jobs (e.g forestry employs 250,000 people in Canada)
- the exploitation of forests generate a lot of wealth for countries involved, while only destroying a small fraction of the vast biome.
- oil and gas extraction as well as HEP.
- brings jobs and income to isolated places.
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How does the USA define ‘wilderness’?
‘Wilderness’ is an official type of land use untouched by human activity. It covers 4.5% of the USA.
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What is required in wilderness areas?
- motorised transport is not allowed.
- recreation is allowed (e.g camping) but people must leave no trace of human activity.
- logging, mining and road building are banned.
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What are the regulations of a national park?:
- exceed a 1000 hectares in size.
- have legal protection.
- have a budget, with park rangers to protect and monitor the area.
- are open to the public for recreation and public use.
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What is the Wood Buffalo National Park?
Worlds 2nd largest national park. Created in 1922 to protect mountain bison form hunting. It now protects many other animals. The rarity of bison led to woodland buffalo become a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983 and a Ramsar Wetland Sit In 1982.
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What are threats to the Woodland Buffalo National Park?
Tar sands mining is close by. This could pollute the parks Athabasca River, and reduce its flow when when water is taken for use in mining.
HEP dams including one on the Peace River could disrupt wetlands and river flow.
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What are the RAMSAR wetlands site and the World Heritage Site and how do they help preserve the environment?
These conserve areas for global importance to give them an extra level of protection.
-countries submit sites to the global RAMSAR and World Herirage lists. They agree to conserve them and provide funding to protect species from hunting, develop,ent or pollution. However this is difficult.
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How many people does the forestry industry employ?
2 million people in Russia.
500,000 in Canada.
(Canada forestry generates US$15 billion each year.)
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Clear cutting is the logging of all trees in a wide area of forest. Some of the impacts are:
- it makes soil erosion likely, so the forest takes decades to regenerate naturally.
- it destroys moss, lichen and other plants on forest floor.
- landslides and river bank erosion increase dramatically, when all the trees are removed.
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What does geographical conflict mean?
Disagreement and differences in opinion linked to the use of places and resources.
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What is selective logging?
Only removes large valuable trees in order to leave some of the forest intact.
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What are disadvantages of selectively/commercially logged Taiga being replanted?
The regenerated (secondary forest) is has lower biodiversity than the original forest because. This is because logging companies replant only the most commercially valuable trees.
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What people and organisations support conservation of the Taiga?
World Wide Federation: (WWF)
They are an NGO that believe that any development poses significant threats to the region.
International Boreal Conservation Science Panel:
Believe that mounting pressures on boreal regions in Canada and globally requires more protected conservation.
Arkaim Sawmil in Siberia Spokesperson:
He believes trees are a renewable resource unlike coal or oil. Cutting them down is ok as long as they are replanted for future generation.
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Saami people (ingineousngrpu from Norway, Sweden and Finland):
Believe in preserving and developing their economic activities so their communities can keep traditions. They want to preserve their land and heritage for future generations.
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What people and organisations believe in exploitation or favour exploitation above conservation?
Anthabasca Chipewyan First Nation (North America Indigenous group opposed to Tar sand development):
Not against development of lands but want to see respectful sharing and utilisation of the land. They believe economic development at the expense of people and the planet is not logical.
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Syncrude website (largest oil company in Canada which extract oil from the Tar sands):
Contribute to the economic well being of Canadians by providing and rewarding employment to thousands of people through the payment of taxes and the purchase of good and services from suppliers.
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