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Social Research Methods > Part I > Flashcards

Part I Flashcards

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1
Q

When planning to do social research, it is better to:

A

Be familiar with the literature on the topic

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2
Q

Which comes first, theory or research?

A

It depends on your point of view

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3
Q

A deductive theory is one that:

A

Involves testing an explicitly defined hypothesis

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4
Q

What does ‘sampling cases’ mean?

A

Sampling people, newspapers, television programmes etc.

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5
Q

Why is data analysis concerned with data reduction?

A

Because we need to make sense of data

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6
Q

The core ingredients of a dissertation are:

A

Introduction; Literature review; Research methods; Results; Discussion; Conclusion.

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7
Q

Because of the number of things that can go wrong in research there is a need for:

A

Flexibility and Perseverance

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8
Q

What is a ‘grand theory’?

A

One that is highly abstract and makes broad generalizations about the social world

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9
Q

What does an empiricist believe?

A

Knowledge, in the form of ‘facts’, should be gained through sensory experience

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10
Q

An inductive theory is one that:

A

Allows theory to emerge out of the data

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11
Q

What is the epistemological position held by a positivist?

A

Scientific research should be based on value-free, empirical observations

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12
Q

The constructionist ontological position suggests that:

A

Social phenomena and their meanings are constantly being accomplished by social actors

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13
Q

The qualitative research strategy places a value on:

A

Generating theories through inductive research about social meanings

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14
Q

An important practical issue to consider when designing a research project is:

A

How much time and money you have to conduct the research

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15
Q

What is a research design?

A

A framework for every stage of the collection and analysis of data

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16
Q

If a study is “reliable”, this means that:

A

The measures devised for concepts are stable on different occasions

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17
Q

“Internal validity” refers to:

A

Whether or not there is really a causal relationship between two variables

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18
Q

Lincoln & Guba (1985) propose that an alternative criterion for evaluating qualitative research would be:

A

Trustworthiness

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19
Q

In an experimental design, the dependent variable is:

A

The one that is not manipulated and in which any changes are observed

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20
Q

What is a cross-sectional design?

A

The collection of data from more than one case at one moment in time

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21
Q

Survey research is cross-sectional and therefore:

A

High in replicability but low in internal validity

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22
Q

Panel and cohort designs differ, in that

A

A panel study can distinguish between age effects and cohort effects, but a cohort design can only detect ageing effects

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23
Q

Cross cultural studies are an example of:

A

Comparative design

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24
Q

Why is it important for structured interviews to follow a standardized procedure?

A

To increase reliability, because all respondents receive the same interview stimulus

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25
Closed ended questions are those that:
Have a fixed range of possible answers
26
A filter question is one that:
Helps the interviewer to avoid asking irrelevant questions by directing them elsewhere on the schedule
27
One of the preoccupations of quantitative researchers is with generalization, which is a sign of:
External validity
28
Written accounts of quantitative research rarely include the results of reliability and validity tests because:
Researchers are more interested in reporting their substantive findings
29
13. Distinguish between structured, semi-structured and unstructured interviews.
Structured: follow standard script, each interviewee is asked the same questions (1 mark) Semi-structured: outline interview script/schedule followed, core questions asked of each interviewee, but individual responses pursued as felt appropriate (1 mark) Unstructured: no script, close to a conversation, the interviewee is free to talk about whatever is deemed relevant (1 mark)
30
What ethical concerns do covert observational studies raise?
People being observed cannot consent to the research. The researcher may have to lie about who they are/what they are doing, which can put them in a difficult position. Full anonymity is not possible, although confidentiality can be maintained, but this is completely in the control of the researcher. Particular issues of anonymity arise for people not directly involved in the study (e.g. passers-by).
31
What is meant by “covert” observation?
Researcher observes people in whom s/he is interested (1 mark), without informing them that they are being observed (1 mark).
32
What is a “confidence interval” (CI)?
Range of values within which the mean lies (1 mark). Level of confidence as a percentage* (1 mark) that the true mean is between the upper and lower values given (1 mark).
33
What is meant by “potential confounders”?
Factors/variables which are not the focus of the study but can confound (affect) the findings.
34
What assumptions should be met before a Pearson product moment correlation (r) is used?
Data should be interval or ratio (1 mark) and Normally distributed (1 mark) and the relationship (correlation) should be linear (1 mark).
35
What is The Cochrane Library?
A library maintained by the Cochrane collaboration (0.5 marks), containing all systematic reviews conducted according to Cochrane principles (0.5 marks).
36
What are randomised controlled trials?
Trial = experimental study comparing one or more interventions with none (or current best practice) (1 mark). Participants randomly allocated to group (1 mark). One control (non-intervention) group plus one or more experimental group or groups (1 mark).
37
What is meant by “loss to follow-up”?
Participants were not available for later stages of the study, e.g. to explore long-term effects
38
Why did the review exclude studies in which more than 15% of participants were lost to follow-up?
If participants are lost to follow-up, impossible to measure long-term effects/outcomes (1 mark). Exclusion criterion set at 15% lost to follow-up to enable meaningful long-term comparisons (1 mark)
39
Why did the two authors independently assess the quality of the trials and extract data?
To ensure that criteria were applied consistently/in a non-idiosyncratic way
40
What is “heterogeneity”
Variability, difference between studies, here in relation to the analyses conducted
41
How might heterogeneity affect comparisons between studies
If studies use very different methods and tools, it is impossible to compare their findings (i.e. to “pool their effect sizes”)
42
Distinguish between methodology and method
Methodology: general approach to conducting a research study (1 mark), Method: specific technique, usually for data collection (sometimes also used in relation to data analysis) (1 mark)
43
Give a qualitative example of methodology
IPA, grounded theory, discourse analysis, conversation analysis, visual methodology, ethnography
44
Give a qualitative example of a method
interviews, observation, focus groups
45
Why would a qualitative researcher choose to use interviews rather than focus groups?
Seeking to obtain in-depth information (1 mark). Interested in individual perspectives, rather than outcomes of group discussion (1 mark). Exploring highly sensitive or personal topics/issues (1 mark). Exploring topics/issues where social acceptability is likely to shape responses (1 mark). Concerns re anonymity/confidentiality (1 mark).
46
What is meant by “saturation” in qualitative research?
Data saturation occurs when researchers decide that they are no longer hearing or seeing new information in their data (1 mark). Qualitative researchers analyse the data they collect while the study is continuing (0.5 marks). When researchers decide that no new data are emerging since data from new research participants are repeating themes/topics/concepts identified in responses from previous participants (0.5 marks), and therefore future participants are unlikely to say anything which has not already been identified (0.5 marks), researchers then stop recruiting/interviewing new participants, because further recruitment will not produce anything new (0.5 marks).
47
Which approach to qualitative research generally uses “bracketing”?
Bracketing
48
What is meant by bracketing
It is a process whereby qualitative researcher/s consciously/actively seek to identify/become aware of their own prejudgements and prior knowledge (1 mark). Aim: researchers are seeking to suspend the influence of their prior knowledge and preconceptions (1 mark), the researcher aims to analyse participants’ accounts with increased awareness of what the researcher brings to the analysis (1 mark).
49
Why do some qualitative researchers recommend bracketing?
1 mark for discussion of how awareness of prejudgements may help researchers to address the subject matter on its own terms. 1 mark for discussion of how bracketing assists researchers to be mindful of their own presence and influence in the whole research process, 1 mark for discussion of how researchers aim to increase their awareness of how participants’ accounts might challenge existing theory/expectations.
50
Why is it difficult to infer causes from correlations?
Correlations do not indicate the direction of causality (i.e. which variable is affecting which) (or any equivalent explanation) (1 mark). The relationship could be the result of a third variable, correlating with the 2 variables shown (1 mark).
51
Ethical guidelines for conducting with people?
Informed consent, free to withdraw at any time, participants identities anonymous
52
All research involving humans must conform basic ethical principles including:
Respect for autonomy, beneficence, justice
53
Triangulation
When 2 or more method are used to check/clarify qualitative research
54
Coding
Process of marking segments of data with symbols, descriptive words or category names
55
Longitudinal/Cohort studies should be used when:
We want to identify possible causes of an illness in a population
56
A good research q for a RCT will include
A specification of the population of interest
57
What is a systematic review's purpose?
To identify and eliminate bias
58
What would the most appropriate design be to test effectiveness of an intervention
RCT
59
Mean, median and mode are all measures of
Central tendency
60
Standard deviation is:
The square root of the variance The measure of variability An approx. indicator of how number vary from the mean
61
Non-parametric standardised hypothesis test to compare 2 RELATED samples, MATCHED samples or repeated measurements on a single sample to assess whether their population mean ranks differ
WILCOXON SIGNED RANK TEST
62
2 sample T test. Inferential statistical test that determines whether there is a statistically significant difference between the means in two UNRELATED groups
INDEPENDENT T TEST
63
Non parametric test of the null hypothesis that is equally likely that a randomly selected value from the population will be less than or greater than a randomly selected value from a second population
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST
64
Used to test relationship between scores that are not normally distributed
SPEARMANNS RAND DIFFERENCE CORRELATION
65
A leading Q is a Q that
encourages participants to give a particular answer
66
What is an outlier?
An extreme variable at either end of a distribution
67
What is a systematic review?
Research where a number of similar studies on a topic are selected, collated and reviewed in order to evaluate the evidence provided by the studies in terms of quality level of agreement.
68
What does PICO mean
Participants Intervention Comparison Outcome
69
What is the think aloud method design?
Respondents are asked to complete questionnaire and verbalise thought while they do so. It is used to understand the process of respondents to improve quality of questionnaire design
70
What is the difference between interval/ratios & ordinal variables?
The distance between categories in equal across the range of interval/ratio data
71
If the values for mean, median and mode are close, then what does this suggest?
Normal distribution

Social Research Methods (4 decks)

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