PEACH PACK 1 - Hypotheses, Variables and Sampling

Question 1

FMGI

The scientific method

Answer 1

Way of gaining knowledge by forming theories, making predictions, gathering data and interpreting results

Question 2

How does research begin? What needs to happen for research to be conside

Steps in the scientific method

Answer 2

• A phenomenon/behaviour is noticed
• Theories are developed to explain/describe this
• Hypotheses are written
• Studies are designed to test these predictions/answer these questions
• Data collection takes place
• Analysis of data collected

Question 3

What do we measure in a correlational study?

Answer 3

How strongly two variables are ASSOCIATED. Correlations describe the relationship between two variables

They are both measured and neither one is set or controlled.

Question 4

Positive… strong…

What do we establish in a correlational study?

Answer 4

The strength (strong or weak) and direction (positive or negative) of the association between these 2 variables.

Question 5

What does a correlational hypothesis predict?

Answer 5

A constant association between 2 co-variables.

Question 6

Alternate directional correlational hypothesis sentence

Answer 6

There will be a significant negative correlation between V1 and V2

NOT cause and effect relationship

Question 7

Alternate non-directional correlational hypothesis statement

Answer 7

There will be a significant correlation between V1 and V2

Question 8

IV + DV

What happens in a traditional scientific experiment?

Answer 8

The researcher is attempting to measure the effect of IV on DV by controlling all other variables. Allows researchers to establish cause-and-effect-links between 2 variables

Question 9

IV

Answer 9

Variable which is manipulated by the experimenter

Question 10

DV

Answer 10

Outcome which is measured by experimenter.

Results DEPEND on IV

Question 11

What is an alternate hypothesis?

Answer 11

A prediction in the form of a testable statement

Question 12

What do alternate hypothesis’ predict?

Answer 12

The direction of the outcome

Question 13

Predicts…

Directional hypothesis

One-tailed

Answer 13

Predicts what direction the difference/correlation will be

Question 14

There will be…

Experimental, alternate directional hypothesis statement

Answer 14

(IV 1st condition) will get better/worse scores (in the DV) than (IV 2nd condition)

Question 15

Predicts…

Non-directional hypothesis

Two-tailed

Answer 15

Predicts only that there will be a difference/correlation, allowing for an outcome in either direction.

“There will be a significant difference/correlation”

Question 16

There will be…

Experimental, alternate non-directional hypothesis statement

Answer 16

There will be a significant difference (in the DV) between (IV 1st condition) and (IV 2nd condition)

Question 17

Predicts…

Null hypothesis

Non-directional, two-tailed

Answer 17

Predicts that the result the researcher gets are due to chance

Question 18

There will be…

Experimental null hypothesis statement

Answer 18

There will be no significant difference (in the DV) between (IV1) and (IV2)

Question 19

Validity

Answer 19

Extent to which a study has measured what it claims to measure

Question 20

Operational definition of a variable

Answer 20

Said in precise terms how we will measure/manipulate it

Question 21

In a hypothesis…

No need to answer Q

Answer 21

• We need to define how we will manipulate the IV
• Define how we will measure the DV

Question 22

Extraneous variables

Answer 22

Variables that may have an effect on the DV apart from the IV

Question 23

Confounding variables

Answer 23

Uncontrolled extraneous variables that have had an effect on results

Question 24

Reliability

Answer 24

Extent to which a research finding is produced consistently over a number of investigations

Consistency

Question 25

Situational variables

Answer 25

Variables in the research situation itself that can have an effect on the DV

Question 26

Pilot studies

Answer 26

Smaller version of actual study allowing identification of problems

Question 27

Participant variables

Answer 27

Variables coming from individual participants

Question 28

What method is used to control participant variables?

Answer 28

Randomisation - random allocation of participants

Question 29

What does randomisation allow us to assume?

Answer 29

That the differences between individual participants are balanced out

Question 30

Order effects

Answer 30

When the same group of participants are required to carry out a task twice

Question 31

What effect does 'order effects' have on performance?

Answer 31

Performance may improve or deteriorate due to practice or fatigue

Question 32

What is used to control order effects, how and why?

Answer 32

**Counterbalancing** Half the participants complete the task in one order, the other half in the opposite order. Effects are balanced out

Question 33

Demand characteristics

Answer 33

All of the cues that participants might receive that indicate the purpose of the research

Question 34

Why are demand characteristics a problem and how are they controlled?

Answer 34

Participants may unconciously change behaviour as a result of these cues. Low levels of deception is used to 'throw participants off' to disguise the true purpose of the questionnaire.

Question 35

Researcher effects and an example

Answer 35

If a researcher knows the aims of the study and the expected outcome and struggle to remain *objective* and *influence the results* to reflect their expectation. Eg. mis-recording results/influencing participant behaviour/failing to follow standardised procedures

Question 36

How can researcher effects be controlled?

Answer 36

Following standardised procedures.

Question 37

# IV + DV What does an experimental hypothesis predict?

Answer 37

A cause-and-effect relationship between the IV and DV. Predicting that manipulating the IV will cause a change/difference in the DV/

Question 38

What is a representative sample?

Answer 38

A group of participants drawn from the target population that is typical of that target population

Question 39

Why is a representative sample important?

Answer 39

Allows us to generalise from our results to the rest of the target population

Question 40

What is sampling-bias?

Answer 40

Over-representation of one group of people ## Footnote No longer appropriate to generalise

Question 41

Random sample

Answer 41

A sample in which every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected

Question 42

One method of random sampling

Answer 42

The lottery method

Question 43

What is the main advantage of random sampling?

Answer 43

Provides the best chance of an unbiased representative sample - everyone has opportunity to be chosen

Question 44

One disadvantage of random sampling

Answer 44

Easy to end up with biased sample by chance

Question 45

Name at least 2 non-random sampling techniques:

Answer 45

* Opportunity samples * Volunteer samples * Stratified sampling

Question 46

# What it is, advantages and disadvantages Describe opportunity sampling

Answer 46

* Researcher selects participants who are available. * **Quick**, **convenient** and efficient + **ethical** * Tends to be **unrepresentative** as it is **biased** * Participants are those who are willing to take part - specific characteristic

Question 47

# What it is, advantages and disadvantages Describe volunteer sampling

Answer 47

* Self-selected samples where the participants have conciously decided to become involved in research * **Ethical** as them volunteering is giving consent * Allows access to a **wide variety** of participants * Easy + **convenient** * **Biased** as not everyone in the target population may see advert etc + participants are people who are most likely outgoing and helpful

Question 48

# What it is, advantages and disadvantages Describe stratified sampling

Answer 48

* Dividing the target population into important strata/sub-categories which allow researcher to make sure certain groups are represented in sample. * Because a deliberate effort is made to identify + select most important characteristics, sample will be fairly **representative** * Identification of sub-categories by researcher may be **biased** - important sub-categories may be excluded from sample making it less representative