Phase One: Week Four

Question 1

The TNM staging is commonly used for cancer. What does TNM stand for?

Answer 1

T: tumour
N: nodes
M: metastases

Question 2

What are the four stages of the T category in the TNM system?

Answer 2

T1: tumour invaded only submucosae and mucosa
T2: tumour invaded muslce layer
T3: tumour invaded serosa layer
T4: tumour outside of the tissue

Question 3

What are the three stages of the N category in the TNM system?

Answer 3

N0: no nodes affected
N1: 1-3 nodes affected
N2: >4 nodes affected

Question 4

What are the two stages of the M category in the TNM system?

Answer 4

M0: no metastases
M1: metastases

Question 5

What are the different stages of the number staging of cancer and what do the mean?

Answer 5

Stage One: the cancer is obtained in the organ (T1, N0, M0)
Stage Two: the cancer is within the organ but is larger and there may be lymph nodes involved (T2-3, N0-1, M0)
Stage Three: the cancer has spread to surrounding tissue and lymph nodes (T4, N1-2, M0)
Stage Four: the caner has metastases (Any T, Any N, M1)

Question 6

What is the meaning of neoplasia?

Answer 6

Abnormal growth

Question 7

What is the meaning of anaplasia?

Answer 7

Loss of cellular differentiation

Question 8

What is the meaning of dysplasia?

Answer 8

Change in cell or tissue and abnormal growth

Question 9

What is the meaning of metaplasia?

Answer 9

A change from one type of differentiated tissue to anothe

Question 10

What are the four ways that cancer can spread?

Answer 10

Lymphatic : through lymph nodes
Transcoelomic: through body cavities
Haematogenous: through blood
Canalicular: though anatomical canalicular spaces for example bile duct or urinary system

Question 11

What is the difference between dysplasia and metaplasia?

Answer 11

Dysplasia is cancerous whereas Metaplasia is non-cancerous.

Question 12

What are the three developmental stages of life before birth and give their timings?

Answer 12

Pre-implantation: weeks 1-2
Embryonic: weeks 2-8
Fetal: weeks 9- 28

Question 13

Which germ layer gives rise to the pancreas?

Answer 13

Endoderm

Question 14

Which germ layer gives rise to the tooth enamel?

Answer 14

Ectoderm

Question 15

Which germ layer gives rise to the notochord?

Answer 15

Mesoderm

Question 16

Which germ layer gives rise to the thyroid gland?

Answer 16

Endoderm

Question 17

Which germ layer gives rise to the Adrenal medulla?

Answer 17

Ectoderm

Question 18

Which germ layer gives rise to the Adrenal cortex?

Answer 18

Mesoderm

Question 19

What is the difference is the germ layer derivates in the adrenal cortex and medulla?

Answer 19

The Adrenal cortex is from the mesoderm and the Adrenal Medulla is from the ectoderm.

Question 20

What cyclin-dependent kinase is used for regulation of the S phase?

Answer 20

CDK 2 - Cyclin E

Question 21

What occurs in G1?

Answer 21

Cells grow and prepare for DNA synthesis.

Question 22

What occurs in the S phase?

Answer 22

DNA synthesis

Question 23

What occurs in G2?

Answer 23

The organelles duplicate and cells grow

Question 24

Give two examples of proto-oncogenes

Answer 24

MyC and RAS

Question 25

What do oncogenes code for?

Answer 25

Hyperactive protein or a normal protein with abnormal quantities, wrong time or wrong type

Question 26

What three mechanisms forms a hyperactive protien?

Answer 26

Point mutation, deletion, chromosomal rearrangement

Question 27

What mechanism forms a normal protein with wrong qualities?

Answer 27

Gene amplification

Question 28

What does p53 switch on during low levels of DNA damage?

Answer 28

p21

Question 29

What is the function of E-cadherin?

Answer 29

Holds epithelial cells together. Cancer cells will often by deficient in this.

Question 30

Name two chemicals that cancer uses to spread

Answer 30

MMPs and uPA (urokinase plasminogen activator)

Question 31

How do cancer cells avoid the need for extracellular signals for cell proliferation?

Answer 31

Activation of proto-oncogenes

Question 32

How co cancer cells avoid mechanisms that impose constraints on cell proliferation?

Answer 32

Loss of tumour suppressor gene and constitute telomerase expression

Question 33

What does the drug Herceptin bind to and what illness is it used for?

Answer 33

This is used for breast cancer and it binds to HER2

Question 34

What does the drug Avastin bind to and what illness is it used for?

Answer 34

This targets VEGF and is used for colorectal cancer

Question 35

What does the drug Iressa bind to and what illness is it used for?

Answer 35

This targets EGFR and is used for lung cancer

Question 36

Give some examples of endocrine signals

Answer 36

These include adrenaline, testosterone, insulin oestrogen. melatonin, ADH

Question 37

How do T cells participate in autocrine signalling?

Answer 37

T cells release IL-2 and this binds to the T cells again and causes proliferation and differentiation.

Question 38

What type of signal can diffuse straight through the membrane?

Answer 38

Hydrophobic

Question 39

How do steroid hormones elicit their effect?

Answer 39

These diffuse through the membrane and bind to a intracellular receptor and affect transcription,

Question 40

What is the time scale for G1?

Answer 40

10 hours

Question 41

What is the time scale for S phase?

Answer 41

7.5 hours

Question 42

What is the time scale for G2?

Answer 42

3.5 hours

Question 43

What is the maturation promoting factor?

Answer 43

CDK 1 cyclin B

Question 44

Give an example of a stable cell

Answer 44

Liver

Question 45

Give an example of a permanent cell

Answer 45

Brain, Heart, Neurons

Question 46

What chromosome is MYC located on?

Answer 46

8

Question 47

What are some characteristics of a benign tumour?

Answer 47

Resembles the origin, slow growth, normal mitosis, small nuclei, pressure effects, hormone secretion, local excision, not cancerous

Question 48

What are some characteristics of a malignant tumour?

Answer 48

This is less differentiated, fast growth, numerous and atypical nuclei, increased DNA, numerous mitosis, local pressure effects, cancerous

Question 49

What are the six hallmarks of cancer?

Answer 49

``` Self sufficiency for growth signals Avoiding apoptosis Insensitivity to inhibitory growth signals Able to metastasis Angiogenesis Unlimited potential to divide ```

Question 50

What mutations generally occur in oncogenes?

Answer 50

Specific translocation and point mutation

Question 51

What mutations generally occur in tumour suppressor genes?

Answer 51

Deletions or mutations

Question 52

How are white parts shown up on an X-ray?

Answer 52

Dense parts do not absorb radiation.

Question 53

What are the four types of tissue in the body?

Answer 53

Muscle, Connective, Nervous and Epithelial

Question 54

What is the meaning of polymorphic?

Answer 54

Cells/ Nuclei being different in their size and shape

Question 55

What is the meaning of high nuclear -cytoplasmic ratio?

Answer 55

The nuclei take up more of the cell that the cytoplasm

Question 56

What is a sarcoma?

Answer 56

Tumour of connective tissue

Question 57

What is a carcinoma?

Answer 57

Tumour of epithelial tissue