Philosophy Test - Metaphysics

Question 1

What is the ‘practical man’, as Russell describes him?

Answer 1

The ‘practical man’ is one who is only capable of recognizing physical, and material needs, such as food, water, and shelter - needed for survival - and fails to recognize that the mind has needs as well.

A man who is not “practical” would not recognize philosophy

Question 2

What kind of knowledge does philosophy aim for? (according to Bertrand Russell)

Answer 2

The knowledge it aims for is the endless answers that philosophic questions cause, and the development of The Self because the choices that most resonate with a philosopher, are entirely reliant on their life experiences.

Question 3

What is the chief value of philosophy?

Answer 3

The chief value of philosophy is that the philosopher is forced to think on a greater scale - one of the outer world as a whole - beyond the individual world we typically go about in our day-to-day. This allows the philosopher to feel free of the customs they have encountered in their private lives and seek a wave of calmness as they realize how small their world is in comparison to the world around them.

Question 4

How is the life of the ‘instinctive man’ inherently limited?

Answer 4

The life of the instinctive man is inherently limited because he is forced to remain in the world of his private life - one that only consists of his customs and those of his family and friends - this prevents him from experiencing the outer world and the freedom it provides.

Question 5

5. After reading the article, what is Russell attempting to say about how the philosophic mind enlarges itself? In other words, what is to be gained by philosophic contemplation?

Answer 5

Russell is trying to say that by thinking philosophically one can meet the needs of the mind as philosophy produces endless indefinite answers to questions that cause one to consider the outer world.

By considering the outer world, the customs of the private world are left behind and a calmness is found as one realizes their existence is not as stressful as it appears.

Question 6

Why Take Philosophy?
Reason #1 - You don’t have a choice.

Answer 6

It seems as though all humans, ever, orient their lives around ideas about what reality is like, that they believe explains their experiences, and ideas about what reality and human beings should be like.

Human beings seem to need these ideas, perhaps because they are not instinctive to us. We are not born with a reason to exist, other than simply existing. We want to know. So we search for reasons.

Question 7

Why Take Philosophy?
Reason #2 - We’re wrong, like, a lot.

Answer 7

Looking through history, even quickly, shows that many or most of the philosophies and ideologies of the past are no longer viewed as being correct, or moral, or both.

So every generation and every culture attempts to discover their own meanings and their own reasons to behave in a particular way.

Question 8

Why Take Philosophy?
Reason #3 - Philosophy and Science together.

Answer 8

Science (the thing that can make cars, electron microscopes, green technology, your phone and satellites) isn’t separate from philosophy. Philosophy simply asks the big huge questions, and science takes it from there.

Question 9

Why Take Philosophy?
Reason #4 - Your Own Philosophy will Determine your Future.

Answer 9

You can find these answers, or someone else will just make you believe their answers. There’s no other option.
“This is your life, and it’s ending one minute at a time.”

Question 10

Why Take Philosophy?
Reason #5 - Ideas are Ridiculously Powerful.

Answer 10

Our ideas guide our actions - good or bad. Just in the 1900s, the idea of Nazism led to millions of people dead. The idea of Stalinism killed millions as well. People kill and are killed based on their religious ideas. The idea that your country is superior or your people are superior leads us to kill each other all the time.

Conversely, the idea of human rights has benefited people greatly. The simple philosophy of sharing leads people to do great things every day. The concept of empathy brings us closer to understanding and caring for each other - even total strangers.

The ideas in your head are, in many ways, literally a matter of life and death.

Question 11

Ultimately… Your ideas, your philosophies…

Answer 11

Will shape your life.

Question 12

Field #1 - Logic

Answer 12

Logic is the study of valid argument forms. Beginning in the late 19th century, mathematicians focused on a mathematical treatment of logic, and today the subject of logic has two broad divisions:
mathematical logic (formal symbolic logic) and what is now called philosophical logic.

Question 13

Field #2 - Metaphysics

Answer 13

Metaphysics is the study of the nature of being and the world.

Traditional branches are cosmology and ontology

This is the big one: it is the search for ultimate categories that will help us understand the universe and our place in it.

Past topics include existence, essence, time, space, God, self, and cause.

Stay tuned, but don’t hold your breath – metaphysics is now mostly pre-scientific and mathematical in nature.

Question 14

Cosmology is

Answer 14

the study of the Universe in its totality, and by extension, humanity’s place in it.

The study of the universe has a long history involving science, philosophy and religion.

Question 15

Ontology is

Answer 15

the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality in general, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations.

Ontology deals with questions concerning what entities exist or can be said to exist, and how such entities can be grouped, related within a hierarchy, and subdivided according to similarities and differences.

Question 16

Field #3 - Epistemology

Answer 16

Epistemology or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and limitations of knowledge.

It addresses the questions:
What is knowledge?
How is knowledge acquired?
What do people know?
How do we know what we know?
Do we really know anything, and if so, what?
And how do we know it? And how do we know that we know it? Etc….you get the point

Note: epistemology currently centres on the issues of language.
“What do you know?” has taken a backseat to “What do you mean?”

Question 17

Field #4 - Ethics

Answer 17

Ethics is a branch of philosophy which seeks to address questions about morality that is, about concepts such as good and bad, right and wrong, justice, and virtue.

Which actions are right and which ends are good

Are actions good if they produce good results or if the intention is good?

Its practical stuff – think TV’s Dexter – Am I a good person doing bad things or a bad person doing good things?

Question 18

Field #5 – Social/Political Philosophy

Answer 18

Political philosophy is the study of concepts such as liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code by authority:

what they are, why (or if) they are needed
what makes a government legitimate
what rights and freedoms it should protect and why
what form it should take and why
what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any
when it may be legitimately overthrown—if ever.

Question 19

Field #6 - Aesthetics

Answer 19

Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and with the creation and appreciation of beauty.
It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or sensory-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste.
More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as “critical reflection on art, culture and nature.”

Question 20

Philosophy of education

Answer 20

how and why should we educate our population?

Question 21

Philosophy of religion

Answer 21

subset of Metaphysics, more in-depth

Question 22

Philosophy of history/historiography

Answer 22

how do we study history? How have others studied it and what does that say about them?

Question 23

Philosophy of science

Answer 23

Concerning with the assumptions and foundations of science

Question 24

Philosophy of language –

Answer 24

issues surrounding language, our use of it, and its relationship to meaning and reality

Question 25

Feminist philosophy

Answer 25

as women are an often overlooked group in philosophy, it attempts to re-evaluate traditional philosophy from a feminist perspective

Question 26

Environmental philosophy

Answer 26

concerning with our place in the natural world – generally a subset of ethics

Question 27

Business philosophy

Answer 27

aims and means of business – subset of ethics

Question 28

Medical philosophy

Answer 28

another ethics subset

Question 29

Philosophy of the mind

Answer 29

studies the nature of the mind and mental events

Question 30

A government official, when examining tax exemptions, has to determine what qualifies as a religious group, and what does not.

Answer 30

Metaphysics

Question 31

A neuroscientist in his examinations of the human brain, begins to wonder how complex processes, like human emotions are created by the brain.

Answer 31

Epistemology

Question 32

A pacifist, when conscripted during the World War II, has to decide whether there is such a thing as “good violence”.

Answer 32

Ethics

Question 33

A physicist, upon researching subatomic particles, confirms that the space between particles takes up more space than the particles themselves, and therefore, most objects are mostly made of nothing.

Answer 33

Metaphysic

Question 34

An orthodox clergyman, in a constant debate regarding the nature of evolution, wonders whether religious texts were meant to be taken as metaphor.

Answer 34

Historiography

Question 35

An ESL teacher marvels at how children seem to be able to pick up numerous languages very quickly, while adults cannot.

Answer 35

Epistemology

Question 36

The World Wildlife Fund, while discussing the protection of endangered animals, wonders whether protecting some animals is worth the effort if they seem doomed to extinction. (pandas)

Answer 36

Ethics

Question 37

A child psychologist while working with troubled teens and seeing a lack of success and progress, begins to question the existence of free will.

Answer 37

Metaphysics

Question 38

A devout churchgoer, overwhelmed by the amount of suffering in the world, wonders why a good God would allow evil to exist.

Answer 38

Philosophy of religion – subset of Metaphysics Ethics

Question 39

An environmental group discusses how they can balance development, economic growth and the protection of the environment.

Answer 39

Ethics - Environmental philosophy

Question 40

While learning about methodology in education, a teachers college student wonders if anyone actually knows how people learn things.

Answer 40

Epistemology - Philosophy of education

Question 41

A mathematician uses his calculations to example how he believes that the universe is actually a “multiverse” composed of up to 26 dimensions.

Answer 41

Metaphysics

Question 42

What are the three questions that Rand refers to?

Answer 42

The three questions that Rand says most men spend their days struggling to evade are; “Where am I?” “How do I know it?” and “What should I do?”

Question 43

What is metaphysics, and what is its corollary question?

Answer 43

Metaphysics is the study of the nature of existence Asks the corollary question “How do I know it?”

Question 44

How is politics, related to your opinions in the field of ethics?

Answer 44

This is because the answers provided by ethics determine how one person thinks they should treat another person and in turn, how one thinks the government should treat its people.

Question 45

How have people been influenced by the works of philosophers, even if they didn’t know it? Give a few examples from the text, that you have heard people say in their own lives.

Answer 45

People have been influenced by the works of philosophers even if they don't know it, as they might assume that they never think philosophically and are always immediately working with specific, concrete, real-life problems. However, in order to work with those problems in the first place, they have to use philosophy. examples People are constantly spewing philosophical thoughts; "Don't be so sure — nobody can be certain of anything” comes from David Hume "This may be good in theory, but it doesn't work in practice" comes from Plato, “That was a rotten thing to do, but it's only human, nobody is perfect in this world" comes from Augustine

Question 46

Complete the rest of the reading. According to Rand, what is the point of studying philosophy? Summarize her perspective into your own words.

Answer 46

According to Rand, the point of studying philosophy is for self-protection and the defence of truth, justice, freedom, and any value you ever held or may ever hold.

Question 47

Think back to your reading from Bertrand Russell. List three ways in which you think that the views of Ayn Rand differ from Bertrand Russell's on the importance of philosophy

Answer 47

1. The Different Roles of Philosophy in Our Lives - Individual vs. Collective, Wonder vs. Survival Rand believes that philosophy is innately used for the survival of an individual and their happiness while Russell views philosophy as not innate but a journey people choose to go on to achieve a similar sense of wonder and understanding of the world around them. 2. Rational Thinking - The Limitations of Reason vs. An Emphasis on Reason While Rand is so focused on using one’s reason to protect their own principles, Russell believes that one needs to expand beyond personal reason to foster a true understanding of reality. 3. Impact of Philosophy on Lives - Indirect Effects vs. Direct Effects Russell sees how philosophy would have indirect approaches and recognizes that philosophy could free someone from the stressors of their private life and thus, have positive effects on the individual. Rand sees a direct correlation between an individual life as philosophy will guide their actions and ultimately, if they achieve happiness. Rand does not take into account factors beyond philosophy - she recognizes it as everything, down to survival. Russell separates philosophy from survival and thinks of survival instincts as those of a man who is not philosophically thinking.

Question 48

LOGIC Definition

Answer 48

LOGIC - is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, and computer science. Logic examines general forms which arguments may take, which forms are valid, and which are fallacies.

Question 49

Fallacy

Answer 49

FALLACY 1. a deceptive, misleading, or false notion, belief, etc.: that the world is flat was at one time a popular fallacy. 2. a misleading or unsound argument.

Question 50

Deductive versus Inductive

Answer 50

Logic is often divided into two parts, inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning. The first is drawing general conclusions from specific examples, the second drawing logical conclusions from definitions and axioms.

Question 51

Deductive reasoning versus Inductive reasoning EXAMPLES

Answer 51

Deductive: All living people have a heart beat. You are alive, therefore you must have a heartbeat Inductive: The burgers at “The Grind” are good. The pizza at “The Grind” is good. Therefore everything at “The Grind” is good.

Question 52

The Problems with Deductive & Inductive Reasoning

Answer 52

Deductive reasoning is always correct if the initial premise is correct. But correct initial premises are difficult to find sometimes without relying on Inductive reasoning. Example – How do I KNOW that all living people have heart beats? Inductive reasoning is all based on very particular and limited knowledge, and can therefore be wrong. Example: Can I really conclude with 100% accuracy that EVERYTHING at “The Olive” is good?

Question 53

Inductive Reasoning Problems

Answer 53

Lazy induction Hasty induction

Question 54

Lazy induction

Answer 54

not drawing a conclusion strong enough for the evidence suggests. “I failed math in Grade 10 and Grade 11, but I’m sure I’ll do okay in Grade 12.

Question 55

Hasty induction

Answer 55

basing a conclusion on an insufficient number of premises or observations. “That kid just failed his math test. He must be totally stupid.”

Question 56

The Liar Paradox

Answer 56

A man tells you that he is a liar. If he is telling the truth than he isn’t lying. If he is lying than he isn’t a liar because he is lying?

Question 57

The Present Paradox

Answer 57

What is the ‘present’....or ‘right now’? A minute? A Second? A Nano-second? Any unit of time (a minute) has a beginning, a middle and an end....but the beginning would be the past and the end would be the future. Therefore only the middle would be the present, but can’t the middle also be divided into 3 parts? It doesn’t matter how small the unit of time you have, the middle can ALWAYS be subdivided into parts. If the present has any duration it can be subdivided. Therefore the present has NO duration. But something with no duration by definition, does not exist.

Question 58

The Runner Paradox

Answer 58

To complete a race, a runner must make it halfway first. But before she can make it halfway, she must make it ¼ of the way. But before that, she must make it ⅛ of the way, and 1/16 of the way, and 1/32 of the way. The runner has an infinite amount of tasks to complete, but will do it, in a finite amount of time.

Question 59

Theseus’ Ship

Answer 59

Not so much a paradox, but a problem of identity. Theseus has a magnificent ship, but over time, pieces begin to rot and are replaced. After enough time, every board has been replaced with a fresh piece of wood. Is it still Theseus’ ship?

Question 60

Theseus’s Ship - 2nd part

Answer 60

Let’s say as pieces are replaced, the old pieces are put in a museum. Theseus’ develops a method to ‘fix’ rot, and he uses the old pieces to reconstruct the ship. Which ship is Theseus’ ship?

Question 61

The Barber Paradox

Answer 61

The barber only shaves men that do not shave themselves. If he doesn’t shave himself, he must shave himself. If he DOES shave himself, he does not shave himself.

Question 62

Formal Logic is the science of deductive reasoning Definition of DR

Answer 62

Definition: “reasoning from known premises, or premises presumed to be true, to a certain conclusion.” In contrast, most everyday arguments involve inductive reasoning. reasoning from uncertain premises to probabalistic conclusions “Inference-making”

Question 63

Inductive Reasoning…

Answer 63

…is often incorrect. Hasty Induction – making a conclusion on too few examples. Ie. That long-haired boy smokes pot. Therefore all long-haired boys must smoke pot. Lazy Induction – NOT making a conclusion, when the examples lead you too. Ie. I have lost the last 134 times I bought lottery tickets. But this next one is going to be a winner!

Question 64

Formal logic cannot establish the truth of the premises. The truth of the premises must be

Answer 64

presumed, or taken as a given.

Question 65

In deduction, proofs are always valid or invalid. There is no

Answer 65

middle ground. A deductive argument can’t be “sort of” valid. By contrast, everyday arguments enjoy degrees of probability--plausible, possible, reasonable, believable, etc.

Question 66

The form or structure of a deductive argument determines

Answer 66

its validity

Question 67

The conclusion is said to be “entailed” in, or contained in

Answer 67

the premises.

Question 68

The terms used in a syllogism must be defined precisely If the meanings of key terms are vague or ambiguous, or change during the course of a deductive argument, then

Answer 68

n o valid conclusion may be reached. Major premise: All pitchers hold water Minor premise: Tom Glavin is a pitcher Conclusion: Therefore, Tom Glavin holds water (the term “pitcher” has two different meanings in this argument, so no valid conclusion can be reached)

Question 69

Example of a valid deductive argument Major premise: All cats have 9 lives minor premise: “Whiskers” is a cat conclusion: Therefore, Whiskers has 9 lives

Answer 69

(Note: it doesn’t matter whether cats really have 9 lives; the argument is premised on the assumption that they do.)

Question 70

An argument is valid if

Answer 70

its structure conforms to the rules of formal logic.

Question 71

An argument is sound if

Answer 71

it is valid, and its premises are true.

Question 72

An argument is valid if its structure conforms to the rules of formal logic. An argument is sound if it is valid, and its premises are true. Thus validity is a

Answer 72

prerequisite for soundness, but an argument needn’t be sound to be valid. If sound, then valid too If valid, not necessarily sound

Question 73

major premise: All cats are pink minor premise: Felix is a cat conclusion: Therefore, Felix is pink example of

Answer 73

a valid, but unsound argument (Cats aren’t pink, which makes the first premise untrue. Validity, however, presumes the truth of the premises.)

Question 74

major premise: Anthrax is not a communicable disease minor premise: Communicable diseases pose the greatest threat to public health conclusion: Therefore, anthrax does not pose the greatest threat to public health Example of a

Answer 74

valid and sound argument (The premises are true and the conclusion is valid, that is, it necessarily follows from the premises)

Question 75

The ... is a common form of deductive reasoning.

Answer 75

syllogism

Question 76

There are 3 different types of syllogisms

Answer 76

categorical (universal premises) hypothetical (if-then premises) disjunctive (either-or premises)

Question 77

categorical

Answer 77

(universal premises)

Question 78

hypothetical

Answer 78

(if-then premises)

Question 79

disjunctive

Answer 79

(either-or premises)

Question 80

all syllogisms follow the basic form:

Answer 80

major premise minor premise conclusion

Question 81

Categorical syllogisms rely on

Answer 81

universal premises

Question 82

Example of a ... categorical syllogism: major premise: All Christians believe Jesus is the son of God. minor premise: Biff is a Christian. conclusion: Biff believes Jesus is the son of God.

Answer 82

valid (Note: validity isn’t affected by whether the premises are true or not. Obviously, other religions don’t accept Jesus as the son of God.)

Question 83

Hypothetical syllogisms use

Answer 83

“if-then” premises

Question 84

Example of a ... hypothetical syllogism: Major premise: If Biff likes Babbs, then he’ll ask her to the prom. Minor premise: Biff likes Babbs, Conclusion: Therefore, he’ll ask her to the prom.

Answer 84

valid

Question 85

Hypothetical syllogisms use ... premises

Answer 85

“if-then”

Question 86

Example of a ... disjunctive syllogism: Major premise: Either Babbs will get her navel pierced, or she’ll get a tongue stud. Minor premise: Babbs didn’t get her navel pierced. Conclusion: Therefore, Babbs got a tongue stud.

Answer 86

valid

Question 87

Practice syllogism Major premise: Any creature with six legs is an insect. Minor premise: . Dr. Gass has six legs. Conclusion: Therefore, Dr. Gass is an insect. What kind of syllogism is this? (categorical, hypothetical, or disjunctive) Are the premises true? Is the conclusion valid? Is the argument sound (true premises and a valid conclusion)

Answer 87

categorical Valid, but unsound

Question 88

Deductive invalidity 1. Affirming the consequent For example

Answer 88

Students who plagiarize are expelled from school Rex was expelled from school Rex must have plagiarized

Question 89

Deductive invalidity 2. Denying the antecedent For example

Answer 89

If you exceed the speed limit, you’ll get a ticket. I’m not exceeding the speed limit. Therefore, I won’t get a ticket.

Question 90

Deductive invalidity 3. Undistributed middle term: for examoke

Answer 90

All humans need air to breathe All dogs need air to breathe Therefore, all humans need dogs

Question 91

What, if anything, is wrong with this syllogism? All rock stars want to become movie stars Morton wants to become a movie star Therefore, Morton must be a rock star affirming the consequent denying the antecedent undistributed middle term valid syllogism

Answer 91

Undistributed Middle Term

Question 92

What, if anything, is wrong with this syllogism? Anyone who has lived in California for more than a few years has experienced an earthquake Nadine has lived in California for more than a few years Nadine has experienced an earthquake affirming the consequent denying the antecedent undistributed middle term valid syllogism

Answer 92

Answer: Valid Syllogism

Question 93

What, if anything, is wrong with this syllogism? Anyone who has tried heroin has tried marijuana Naomi hasn’t tried heroin Therefore, Naomi hasn’t tried marijuana affirming the consequent denying the antecedent undistributed middle term valid syllogism

Answer 93

Answer: Denying the Antecedent If A, then B Not A Therefore, not B

Question 94

What, if anything, is wrong with this syllogism? All Christian fundamentalists are opposed to lying Nadine is opposed to lying Nadine is a Christian fundamentalist affirming the consequent denying the antecedent undistributed middle term valid syllogism

Answer 94

Answer: Affirming the Consequent If A, then B B Therefore, A

Question 95

1. If Jane has a cat, then Jane has a pet 2. Jane has a cat 3. Therefore, Jane has a pet

Answer 95

Sound

Question 96

1. If Jane has a cat, then Jane has a pet 2. Jane has a pet 3. Therefore, Jane has a cat

Answer 96

Invalid, Affirming the Consequent

Question 97

1. If Jane has a cat, then Jane has a pet 2. It is not the case that Jane has a pet 3. Therefore, it is not the case that Jane has a cat

Answer 97

Sound

Question 98

1. If Jane has a cat, then Jane has a pet 2. It is not the case that Jane has a cat 3. Therefore, it is not the case that Jane has a pet

Answer 98

Invalid, denying the antecedent

Question 99

1. If pigs fly, then hell has frozen over 2. Pigs fly 3. Therefore, hell has frozen over

Answer 99

Valid

Question 100

1. If Bush is president, then a Republican is president 2. A Republican is president 3. Therefore, Bush is president

Answer 100

Invalid, affirming the consequent

Question 101

1. If E.T. phones home, then blue is Joe's favourite colour 2. It is not the case that blue is Joe's favourite colour 3. Therefore, it is not the case that E.T phones home

Answer 101

Valid

Question 102

1. It is not the case that Yoda is green 2. If Darth Vader is Luke's Dad, then Yoda is green 3. Therefore, it is not the case that Darth Vader is Luke's dad

Answer 102

Invalid, denying the antecedent

Question 103

1. Dan plays the cello 2. If Mary plays the harp, then Owen plays the clarinet 3. Therefore, it is not the case that Mary plays the harp

Answer 103

Invalid

Question 104

1. All smurfs are snorks 2. All ewoks are snorks 3. Therefore, All smurfs are ewoks

Answer 104

Invalid, undistributed middle term

Question 105

1. Kate is a lawyer 2. Therefore, Kate is a lawyer

Answer 105

Valid

Question 106

1. If it is morally permissible to kill an 8-month old fetus, then it is morally permissible to kill a newborn infant 2. It is not the case that it is morally permissible to kill a newborn infant 3. Therefore, it is not the case that it is morally permissible to kill an 8-month old fetus

Answer 106

Invalid, denying the antecedent

Question 107

1. If Rufus is a human being, then Rufus has a right to life 2. It is not the case that Rufus is a human being 3. Therefore, it is not the case that Rufus has a right to life

Answer 107

Valid

Question 108

1. All anarchists are socialists 2. All socialists are totalitarians 3. Therefore, all anarchists are totalitarians

Answer 108

Invalid, undistributed middle term

Question 109

1. No cat is a biped 2. All kangaroos are bipeds 3. Therefore, No cat is a kangaroo

Answer 109

Sound

Question 110

1. If there is order in the universe, then God exists 2. There is order in the universe 3. Therefore, God exists

Answer 110

Valid

Question 111

1. Amy joins the Army, or Mary joins the Marines 2. It is not the case that Mary joins the Marines 3. Therefore, Amy joins the Army

Answer 111

Sound (Note: the word 'OR' is a logical term much like 'if…then', 'therefore' and 'it is not the case that…' Like these other terms, 'OR' is part of the structure or form of the argument, rather than the content.)

Question 112

1. Ariel joins the Air Force or Nancy joins the Navy 2. Nancy joins the Navy 3. Therefore, Ariel joins the Air Force

Answer 112

Invalid

Question 113

Definition of a Fallacy:

Answer 113

Incorrect or flawed reasoning, that often may appear correct.

Question 114

Attack on the Person

Answer 114

Aka an ad hominem fallacy This attacks the person arguing in an attempt to undermine the argument. A: "All rodents are mammals, but a weasel isn't a rodent, so it can't be a mammal." B: "Well, you've never had a good grasp of biology...didn’t you fail science?? So this can't be true."

Question 115

Ad Hominem Fallacy Fallacy (an aside)

Answer 115

People often MISUSE the ad hominem fallacy, by stating that ANY personal attack is an ad hominem. This is not true. It is ONLY an ad hominem if it is used to discredit an argument. Ex. “Margaret is really stupid.” – NOT ad hominem (just an insult) Ex. “Margaret’s opinion is wrong because she is really stupid.” – this IS an ad hominem If I dismiss an argument as an ad hominem, and it is NOT, then my usage of that term, is an ad hominem attack.

Question 116

Appeal to Tradition

Answer 116

This avoids questioning the idea, and instead uses fact that past practices should allow the idea to exist. “The Greeks had slaves, the Romans had slaves, and even the British had slaves. We should realize that slavery is morally acceptable.”

Question 117

Attack on the Motive

Answer 117

The credibility of the person or group is attacked as biased, or motivated by other concerns, but the idea is not questioned. “We shouldn’t listen to Mr. Smith’s opinion. After all, he is really religious.”

Question 118

Appeal to Popularity

Answer 118

An idea is given validity due to the fact that many people support it. (aka Bandwagon Argument) Also can be an…. Appeal to Authority

Question 119

Appeal to Authority

Answer 119

An idea is given validity due to the fact that a seemingly important person supports it.

Question 120

Straw Man Argument

Answer 120

Misrepresenting another person’s argument in a weaker form, and then attacking the weaker form of the argument. “I cannot believe in Darwin’s theories, because I refuse to think that humans are descended from baboons.”

Question 121

Appeal to Ignorance

Answer 121

Attempt to prove an idea by the fact that no evidence exists to the contrary. “Well, it is difficult to find evidence of the UFO invasions in the past, because the government hides it all from us.”

Question 122

Begging the Question/Circular Argument

Answer 122

Occurs when the conclusion exists in the premise, usually in a slightly different form

Question 123

Equivocation

Answer 123

Occurs when a word changes its meaning over the course of an argument. “Power tends to corrupt. Knowledge is power. Therefore, knowledge corrupts.”

Question 124

Loaded Term

Answer 124

A term/phrase is “loaded” when it is used to drive a particular conclusion using terms that carry a particular definition or emotion. Pro-life Terrorist Regime Elite Bureaucrat

Question 125

Slippery Slope – Argumentum ad Absurdum

Answer 125

When an action or idea is attacked because to would lead to an undesirable chain of events is taken to (an absurd) conclusion. “Why would we want to legalize gay marriage? If we don’t keep the definition of marriage the same, it could lead to polygamy! Or marriage with animals! What would stop it!” ==== this is an Argumentum ad Absurdum

Question 126

Accident

Answer 126

Accident – When a general rule is applied to an exceptional situation. “We spend every summer up at the cottage – so I don’t care if my wife is in the hospital...I am going to the cottage.”

Question 127

Converse Accident

Answer 127

like hasty induction, it occurs when an exceptional situation is used to create a general rule. “I saw a bus stop here once. So even if there isn’t a sign, I am waiting here for the bus.” ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE DOES NOT OUTWEIGH DATA

Question 128

Composition

Answer 128

When it is assumed that the characteristic of a part will transfer to the whole. “Team A has really good players. It must be a good team.”

Question 129

Decomposition

Answer 129

When it is assumed that the characteristics of the whole can be transferred to each part. “Team B is really good. Every player on that team must be good.”

Question 130

False Dichotomy

Answer 130

When an argument is presented so as to appear as though there are only 2 options. “You’re either with us or against us.” “You don’t agree with the Liberals? You must be a Conservative voter.”

Question 131

Burden of Proof Reversal

Answer 131

The burden of proof is ALWAYS on the person making the assertion, not those that disagree. Assertions without proof, can be disregarded without proof.

Question 132

1. Thou shall not attack the person’s character - instead attack the idea.

Answer 132

It is too easy to attack someone based on irrelevant details. An ad hominem attack, doesn’t help your argument - it just makes it sound like you cannot argue your actual point. “Why should I believe you, when you (insert irrelevant detail here)?”

Question 133

2. Thou shall not misrepresent the other person’s idea.

Answer 133

AKA A Strawman argument is when someone misrepresents an idea and then argues with the new, weaker version they just created. A - “We should give more money to social services for those that are struggling financially” B - “But, if we give all of our money to those that don’t work, no one will ever work again and we’ll lose all of our money.”

Question 134

3. Thou shall not use small numbers to represent the whole.

Answer 134

A singular example, or an anecdotal story does not disapprove data. “You can do anything - my grandpa came here with nothing and no education. He’s a millionaire now!” While it may be a true story, 1 person doing it, does not mean anyone can. If someone cites a study that says 13.7% of Americans have no access to health insurance (Gallup, Uninsured Rate Rises to 4 Year High, 2019), saying that YOU do, does not disprove the statistic. IT SHOULD BE OBVIOUS but small amounts of evidence do no disprove large amounts of evidence.

Question 135

4. Thou shall not argue a point by assuming one of its premises to be true.

Answer 135

“Smoking cigarettes can kill you because cigarettes are deadly.” While this statement may be correct, it isn’t saying anything meaningful. “Smoking cigarettes is deadly because cigarettes are deadly” isn’t a good argument. It is a tautology. “Everyone wants an iPhone because it's one of the hottest phones on the market!” - same idea. It’s popular because it’s popular? “Abortion is wrong because it is the murder of babies.” - Is a ‘fetus’ really a baby? That’s the disagreement, and you can’t just sneak it in as an accepted premise.

Question 136

5. Thou shall not assume something is a CAUSE just because it happened first.

Answer 136

A restaurant introduces a new menu item, aggressively promotes it, and sales increase. Must be that people love the new item, right? Or could it be just that the new promotions have been effective? Without more information, you can’t know. “The women’s rights movement led to an increase in divorces, and crime has gone up.” Just because A happened before B, doesn’t mean A CAUSED B to happen.

Question 137

6. Thou shall not reduce the argument to 2 possibilities.

Answer 137

There are often FAR more than just two possibilities. “If you want better schools, you will have to raise taxes and pay more. If you don’t want to raise taxes, you can’t have better schools.” What about more efficiency? What about streamlining or removing expenses unrelated to student learning? What about curriculum changes? Etc…. This a called a false dichotomy.

Question 138

7. Thou shall not argue that something must be true or false if we don’t have enough information or BECAUSE of the lack of information.

Answer 138

“The government is run by lizard people that live underground! I know it’s true because SOO many people attack the idea when I say it - they’re all IN ON IT!” “There are thousands and thousands of doctors that don’t believe the Covid story, but they are obviously being silenced so we never hear from them.” This is called an Argument from Ignorance. “Lots of things are invisible, but we don’t see them.”

Question 139

8. Thou shall assume that the burden of proof lies with the one making an assertion, not the one questioning the claim.

Answer 139

A: “Barack Obama never should have been president because he was born in Kenya” B: “Do you have any proof?” A: “It’s not my job to teach you, open a book. Besides, they won’t release his long form birth certificate.” Notice this problematic for TWO reasons. They aren’t proving their statement AND they are saying that not having the information proves something. Assertions without evidence should be disregarded without evidence.

Question 140

9. Thou shall not assume a connection exists when one hasn’t been demonstrated.

Answer 140

“You will follow all of my rules because you are my child. Now go and practice the oboe!” Why should anyone practice the oboe simply because of a biological relationship? There MAY be a point here, but this isn’t it. Can my cousins demand that I play the harmonica?

Question 141

10. Thou shall not assume popular ideas are true

Answer 141

“It was on the New York Times bestseller list, so it MUST be a great book!” “This song has 10 million Spotify listens this month…it’s an awesome song.” Popularity =/= quality or truth.

Question 142

1. Who is Bo Seo?

Answer 142

Bo Seo is Harvard’s former debate coach

Question 143

2. What is the problem with our society’s ability to argue and disagree?

Answer 143

We do not see debate as learning anymore and see them as personal attacks that make us defensive The skills of good argument have been declining Argument is no longer a skill and is now something we jump into out of defensiveness We fail to realize what arguments can do for us - a source of good and a source of help

Question 144

Aristotle (384-322 BCE)

Answer 144

Aristotle was one of the first philosophers to undertake a comprehensive study of the reasoning process. He essentially developed what would become known as “formal logic” – dedicated to the study of deductive reasoning He was a student of Plato, and he disagreed with Plato about everything. SOCRATES -> PLATO -> ARISTOTLE -> ALEX THE GREATO

Question 145

Order of Philosophy

Answer 145

SOCRATES -> PLATO -> ARISTOTLE -> ALEX THE GREAT

Question 146

REASONING DEFINED:

Answer 146

The process of using logic and critical thinking to make informed decisions and solve problems. It involves analyzing and evaluating information, considering different perspectives and options and making judgements based on evidence and reasoning.

Question 147

A Proposition

Answer 147

A proposition is a statement that is considered either true or false. Questions and commands are not propositions because we do not label them as true or false. Your room is messy. We are in the kitchen. You are a snail. The truth or falsity of a proposition can be a matter of debate, but they are all propositions.

Question 148

The Three Laws Aristotle Logic

Answer 148

The Law of Identity The Law of NON-contradiction The Law of the Excluded Middle

Question 149

The Law of Identity

Answer 149

A is A Whatever a thing is, it isn’t something else. This may seem trivial, but the identity of an object depends on the properties that it possesses. It cannot have those properties, and at the same time, NOT have those properties. Without this, the world would be incomprehensible.

Question 150

The Law of NON-contradiction

Answer 150

A proposition cannot be both true and false in the same respect. “It is September” cannot be both a true and a false statement. A proposition cannot contradict itself. “It is Friday and not Friday.”

Question 151

The Law of the Excluded Middle

Answer 151

A specific proposition is either true or false = there is no middle ground. “I am in Stouffville.” - GOOD “I am not in Stouffville.” - GOOD “I am kinda in Stouffville.” - BAD

Question 152

The Principle of Sufficient Reason Everything must have

Answer 152

a reason or a cause. 1. For every entity X, there is a sufficient explanation for why X exists. 2. For every event E, there is a sufficient reason why E occurs. 3. For every proposition P, if P is true, then there is a sufficient reason why P is true. This principle was developed more fully by LEIBNIZ

Question 153

Buridan’s Donkey

Answer 153

First described by Aristotle, but more well known by Buridan. A donkey, placed equally distanced between food and water, and equally hungry and thirsty, will simply die unless there is a reason he/she is moved towards one or the other. Used to demonstrate a lack of free will, or that free will is always decided by pre-existing conditions that determine choice A or choice B.

Question 154

Ockham’s Razor –

Answer 154

William of Ockham (1287-1347) As a rule, we should avoid multiplying entities beyond necessity. We should believe the argument that makes the least amount of assumptions. Example – ‘I was abducted by aliens, who made me late for work.’ ‘I was late for work because I didn’t give myself enough time to get there. Which one survives Ockham’s Razor?

Question 155

Pre-Socratic Philosophers

Answer 155

Team Philosophy before Grandpa Socrates.

Question 156

To understand Ancient Greece, you have to see where they are coming from.

Answer 156

Greece was rocky, divided and surrounded by water. There are thousands of islands. There are mountains and naturals barriers everywhere. Food was difficult to grow in major quantities. Resources are not plentiful.

Question 157

The Geography Creates the Civilization

Answer 157

Ancient Greece is divided politically. The people rarely unite together. Because resources are scarce everyone is seen as competition. Fighting is common. Warfare or the threat of warfare is endemic. Natural disasters can wipe out your home, or your whole village - tidal waves, storms, volcanoes - all occur there.

Question 158

Hesiod

Answer 158

Greek poet around 800 BCE - around the same time as Homer (Illiad and the Odyssey) Considered one of the greatest myth-creators in the Ancient World He is considered to be the conservative, orthodox version of Greek religion - they gods are all around, and they are not good. Man’s lot in life is to work and suffer, and never understand why. All natural events are because of the gods, and the gods don’t like you. The gods have all the WORST human character traits….PLUS superhuman powers.

Question 159

Thales

Answer 159

Born in Miletus around 625. Not very satisfied with the traditional explanation of existence. Wondered if the universe and everything in it was created of a substance - that you came from, and eventually went back to upon death. Think ‘ashes to ashes’ sort of thing. He believes that it may be water - as all things need water to live, and even in the driest seeds there is a drop of water that allows the seed to survive. Without water everything dies - perhaps water is the essential ‘thing’ in the universe

Question 160

Anaximander

Answer 160

Born in 611 BCE Humans could not have always looked like this - we are defenseless in a natural state and our young require YEARS to live on their own. The ‘first human’ would have been eaten immediately. Early creatures probably all emerged from the water. The infinite (apeiron) is like god. It is the force of the universe that didn’t have a beginning - its always been there. The divine is deathless. The earth is suspended aloft on air, and rotates around.

Question 161

Anaximenes

Answer 161

Born in 585 BCE Air is the fundamental substance of existence. When it changes, it becomes different things - it can be fire, or water, or steam. Stars are actually small pieces of fire, very far away. When they change form, they become dilated and rise up into the sky. Heavy rains and dry spells cause earthquakes, and can damage communities.

Question 162

Xenophanes

Answer 162

Born 570 The stories of the gods are useless, made-up concepts. People make up the gods that represent them. African gods look African. Greek gods look Greek. If they were really gods, they would not look or act like us at all. As they cannot die, they could not be made of human bodies. As they are not affected by time, they cannot be made of stuff from Earth. No one knows the truth. And even if we stumble upon the truth, other people will argue against it.

Question 163

Why Study these People? (Pre-Soc)

Answer 163

The importance is not in WHAT they thought, but what changes were happening to human thought around this time. They believed that there was a unity to all things, and that supernatural explanations should be abandoned if we wish to find truth. They saw existence as orderly, and that order could be understood through a process of rational inquiry. They set the conditions for philosophy and science to flourish.

Question 164

Metaphysics is the study of

Answer 164

the basic structure of reality Being and Nothingness Time Freedom and Determinism Mind and Body Personhood Nature and Supreme Beings

Question 165

The Common Sense Realist

Answer 165

Some people find metaphysics silly and say that we know reality because we perceive it everyday. Reality, they say, is only what we know with our senses. Philosophers would say that this idea is driven by ignorance and laziness as people tend to use the phrase “common sense” to apply to knowledge they already have. However some philosophers have said that Metaphysics cannot even be empirically verified, and is therefore meaningless.

Question 166

One day, Plato had two problems floating around his mind………

Answer 166

1) How can humans live a fulfilling, happy life in a contingent, changing world where everything they attach themselves to can be taken away? 2) How can the world appear to be both permanent and changing? The world we perceive through the senses seems to be always changing. The world that we perceive through the mind, using our concepts, seems to be permanent and unchanging. Which is most real and why does it appear both ways?

Question 167

As a solution to his problems, Plato splits up existence into two realms:

Answer 167

the material realm and the transcendent realm of forms. Humans have access to the world of forms through the mind, through reason. This gives them access to an unchanging world, invulnerable to the pains and changes of the material world. We should hold on to the material world less, and focus more on the forms.

Question 168

THE MATERIAL WORLD

Answer 168

Perceived through the senses Constantly changing. It is the world we live in.

Question 169

THE WORLD OF FORMS

Answer 169

The second realm is the immaterial world of forms (ideals) Every human has access to the world of forms through introspection.

Question 170

An Example - World of Forms

Answer 170

Think of yourself. You know your name, and who you are, and you believe yourself to be the same person as you were years ago. This however, is untrue. According to a Stanford Study, you have roughly 37 trillion cells in your body, and they will be replaced within 10 years on average. Although your cells are constantly dying and being replaced, and you are NOT the same physical person, the IDEA of you survives.

Question 171

A form is an

Answer 171

abstract property or quality.

Question 172

Take any property of an object; separate it from that object and consider it by itself, and you are contemplating

Answer 172

a form.

Question 173

The forms are

Answer 173

transcendent. This means that they do not exist in space and time.

Question 174

A material object, a basketball, exists at a particular place at a particular time. A form, roundness, does

Answer 174

not exist at any place or time.

Question 175

The forms are also pure. This means that they are

Answer 175

pure properties separated from all other properties. A material object, such as a basketball, has many properties: roundness, orange, elasticity, etc. These are all put together to make up this individual basketball.

Question 176

The forms differ from material objects, then, in that they are transcendent and pure, while material objects are

Answer 176

complex conglomerations of properties located in space and time.

Question 177

The forms are perfect models (archetypes) for all of the

Answer 177

properties that are present in material objects.

Question 178

Ultimately Real -

Answer 178

The forms are the ultimately real entities, not material objects.

Question 179

All material objects are copies or images of some collection of

Answer 179

forms; their reality comes only from the forms.

Question 180

The forms are the causes of

Answer 180

all things. (1) They provide the explanation of why any thing is the way it is, and (2) they are the source or origin of the being of all things.

Question 181

Systematically Interconnected -

Answer 181

The forms comprise a system leading down from the form of the Good moving from more general to more particular, from more objective to more subjective. The more analysis you give, the closer you get to “the GOOD”. Ignorance is the root of every evil. Plato and Socrates meant this literally. Evil is the manifestation of a lack of knowledge.

Question 182

Deduction:

Answer 182

Deduction refers to a method of reasoning from known premises, or premises presumed to be true, to a certain conclusion.

Question 183

Determinism:

Answer 183

Determinism asserts that every event in the universe, including human decisions and actions, is causally inevitable.

Question 184

Free will:

Answer 184

The supposed power or capacity of humans to make decisions or perform actions independently of any prior event or state in the universe. It poses a sense of autonomy or self-determination, suggesting that individuals have the power to choose their courses of action independently

Question 185

Induction:

Answer 185

Induction is the process of forming general principles based on specific observations. It involves reasoning from particular instances to broader principles. For example, observing that the sun has risen every day in the past leads to the general conclusion that the sun will rise tomorrow.

Question 186

Nihilism:

Answer 186

Nihilism is a philosophy that rejects the societal valuation placed on people, objects, and life itself, asserting instead that everything is meaningless

Question 187

Existential anxiety:

Answer 187

Existential anxiety refers to a profound sense of unease or dread that arises from confronting the fundamental questions of human existence. It stems from the realization of one's own mortality, the uncertainty of the future, the ambiguity of one’s purpose or meaning in life, and the awareness of the absurdity or insignificance of existence in the vast universe.

Question 188

Syllogism:

Answer 188

A syllogism is a prevalent form of deductive reasoning and is a logical argument consisting of three propositions; a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. The major premise and the minor premise each contain a statement, while the conclusion follows the premises through logical inference.

Question 189

Impermanence:

Answer 189

Impermanence is a philosophical concept from Eastern metaphysics that asserts the temporary, fleeting, and ever-changing nature of existence. It suggests that all phenomena, whether physical objects, mental states, or even the self, are subject to continual change and eventual dissolution.

Question 190

Metaphysics:

Answer 190

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the basic structure of reality.

Question 191

Causality:

Answer 191

Causality refers to the principle that every event has a cause or set of causes that precede it. It is also the relation that holds between two temporarily simultaneous or successive events when the first event (the cause) brings about the other (the effect).

Question 192

Materialism:

Answer 192

Materialism asserts that everything, including human thoughts, emotions, and memories, is ultimately reliant on or can be explained by physical processes. It suggests that the mind and will, as well as broader aspects of human experience, can be understood through the lens of physics and material substances.

Question 193

Idealism:

Answer 193

A perspective that stresses the central role of the ideal or the spiritual in the interpretation of experience. It may assert that the world or reality mainly exists as a spirit or consciousness, prioritizing abstractions and laws over sensory perceptions.

Question 194

Falsification:

Answer 194

Falsification is a theory developed by Karl Popper and it aims to separate genuine “science” from pseudo-science by emphasizing the importance of empirical testing. Popper argued that scientists should focus on testing and trying to prove their hypothesis wrong, rather than simply looking for evidence that they are right.

Question 195

Eliminative materialism:

Answer 195

Eliminative materialism is a philosophy of the mind that argues that many mental states we commonly believe in don’t actually exist and have no place in a mature science of the mind. For example, eliminative materialists question even the existence of mental states like beliefs and desires. Advocates like Daniel Dennett and the Churchlands argue that once we understand how the brain truly works, we’ll abandon imprecise psychological language altogether, viewing terms like “love” and “belief” as meaningless (Ramsey, 2003).

Question 196

Archetypes:

Answer 196

Archetypes are fundamental patterns or ideal representations that serve as models for the properties found in material objects. These archetypes are believed to be perfect forms, existing independently of specific instances, guiding our understanding of reality (Cherry, 2023).

Question 197

Aristotle

Answer 197

Went to Macedonia and became tutor of the Alexander the Great when Alexander was 12 (343 BC).

Question 198

Aristotle’s Critique of Plato The Problem of Chorismos

Answer 198

Chorismos is Greek for separation. In Plato’s metaphysics, there is too much of a separation between the Forms and sensible objects for the Forms to be the sources of material objects. Plato’s attempts at explaining the relationship between the Forms and sensible objects are merely “empty words and poetical metaphors.”

Question 199

Aristotle’s Critique of Plato The Problem of Change

Answer 199

Plato maintained that there is change in the World of Becoming (material world) Plato, however, did NOT explain how this change occurs. Why should there be change in the World of Becoming anyway, since it’s supposed to be a copy of the changeless World of Being?

Question 200

So Aristotle believed

Answer 200

There is only one world, the world of substances. Substance: A fundamental entity. It results from the union of matter and form. Matter: That which gets organized and structured. Form: That which organizes and structures.

Question 201

Plato maintained that the Forms are transcendent realities. Aristotle maintained that form is within particular substances. Stuffed animal analogy -

Answer 201

Matter is like the stuffing. Form is like the outer skin.

Question 202

Aristotle Matter and form are distinct but

Answer 202

indivisible. Neither pure form nor pure matter exists. They exist only united to one another in particular substances. E. g. ‘tableness’ does NOT exist apart from particular tables in some fantastic World of Being. Tableness exists only in particular tables.

Question 203

Substantial Change

Answer 203

Substantial change is the corruption (destruction) of one substance and the generation (production) of another. Example from modern knowledge - an H20 molecule. We don’t perceive water as two separate forms, but rather the FORM is water, and it contains 2 parts - hydrogen and oxygen.

Question 204

Accidental Change

Answer 204

DEF - A substance’s losing or gaining a characteristic (an accident) while remaining the same substance. EX - Dismantling a table and using the wood to make a chair is an example of substantial change. The matter of the table has been put into a new form. Painting a brown table red is an example of accidental change. The table both loses an accident (brownness) and gains one (redness) while remaining the same table.

Question 205

Prime Matter:

Answer 205

The fundamental “stuff” out of which substances are generated. Aristotelian prime matter is not unlike modern physics’ “mass/energy.”

Question 206

Second Matter:

Answer 206

The substance(s) from which a new substance is generated when the prime matter of the original substance(s) is put into a new form, e.g. wood is the second matter of a wooden table

Question 207

The Four Causes

Answer 207

Material Cause: The second matter of a present substance. Formal Cause: The form the prime matter has taken in a present substance. Efficient Cause: Whatever generated a present substance. Final Cause: The purpose for which a present substance was generated.

Question 208

What are the Four Causes? A Statue of Socrates

Answer 208

Material Cause: Marble Formal Cause: Statueness of Socrates Efficient Cause: Sculptor Final Cause: To honor Socrates

Question 209

What are the Four Causes? A Shirt

Answer 209

Material Cause: Fabric Formal Cause: Shirtness Efficient Cause: Shirt Maker Final Cause: To keep someone warm.

Question 210

What are the Four Causes? A Wig

Answer 210

Material Cause: Real or synthetic hair Formal Cause: Wigness Efficient Cause: Wig Maker Final Cause: To make someone look and/or feel better.

Question 211

Aristotle’s Point?

Answer 211

Plato’s idea of the W of F, although (maybe) interesting, is garbage. It is untestable, so you’re basically making it up. It doesn’t really help anything, because you’re supposed to just think about the W of F somehow and it will somehow benefit you? How? If we said “All ideas come from the Gods.”, what’s the difference? It may give a useful idea - “Our knowledge is flawed and needs to be more closely examined”. But we need a system based on rational, testable observations and conclusions - not fantasy nonsense.

Question 212

The Upanishads

Answer 212

– the universe is one thing – the Universe is only one reality, which we can call God or Brahman if we want - written 800-500BCE - the oldest Hindu scriptures that exist We will eventually wake from this world, and we will be in a higher reality We will look back at this life, as if it was a dream – just like a dream, this world only seems real because we are still in it

Question 213

Taoism

Answer 213

Taoism – the Tao or the Way – a universal force that governs all things - that isn’t close to a complete definition 500 BCE (ish) by Lao Tzu You must attempt to live in tune with the Tao – to constantly change, not feel attachment to things, and not be overcome by desires Human beings can never grasp ultimate reality.

Question 214

FLUX

Answer 214

Existence is always in flux – there is a cycle of growth and decay. But that decay will then lead to further growth. A creature consumes other life forms, and eventually passes away. Its elements then become the matter for a new life. In the vast expanse of time, “YOU” only exist for very short time. So why do we think we are the real thing? The Universe is about balance. You can never force nature, or try to impose your will on the Universe – the balanced Universe will not let you and therefore, your life will be out of balance.

Question 215

THE TREE ON THE CLIFF

Answer 215

The tree does not survive by imposing its will on the mountain. It lives well by living in tune with its reality. It lives within the Tao.

Question 216

Buddhism

Answer 216

encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices based on the teachings of Siddhartha Guatama - aka Buddha all life is suffering, which can be limited by controlling our cravings and desires around 500 BCE We suffer because we are attached to our things, our past, ourselves as individuals You are just an illusion = anatta. You are constantly changing, and impermanent.

Question 217

ANICCA - Impermanence

Answer 217

“What is real? The building you are in? How many buildings are still around from 100, 500 or 1000 years ago? Very few. The object your seeing? It will fall apart and be destroyed. The eye that is seeing it? It will decompose. The feelings you are having? They are constantly changing and may not be remembered tomorrow, let alone in years. And they are only felt by you - alone. Your body? It is different today than it was 10 years ago. And in 7 years it will be completely different - in 100 it will be gone. What is real? What is permanent?

Question 218

IMPERMANENCE

Answer 218

All things are empty of an intrinsic, or deeper nature. This is, in part, because they are dependent on other things. Nothing is self-originating or existing for its own purposes. You exist for a variety of different reasons, none of which you were in control of. You are changing every moment. You are impermanent.

Question 219

ENLIGHTENMENT

Answer 219

The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism, show that suffering comes from attachment – to your things, to your life, to the idea that there IS an ultimate reality. Once you realize that these things don’t ultimately exist, you are closer to enlightenment.

Question 220

Emptiness

Answer 220

Conventional reality is that object exist, and that things are ‘real’. Ultimate reality in Buddhism would be that reality is empty. Empty of meaning, empty of permanence, and constantly different than the previous second’s reality.

Question 221

EASTERN VERSUS WESTERN

Answer 221

Eastern Man is part of Cosmic unity. Life is a journey towards eternal reality. Existence is cyclical. Inner-world dependent. Self-liberation from the false “Me” Western Man is an element of the divine. Life is for service, to knowledge, to God, to other people. Existence is linear – moving in a straight line towards an end. Outer-world dependent. Self-dedication to the goal – heaven, knowledge.

Question 222

Six Lessons (from Eastern Philosophy) 1. Buddhism’s “Life is suffering”

Answer 222

“Life is unavoidably about misery”, and it is up to one to come to terms with this misery, and let go of all they can that enacts life’s misery upon them. It is through this lens that allows one to appreciate the good things in life, with full gratefulness towards them.

Question 223

Six Lessons (from Eastern Philosophy) 2. Buddhism’s Metta

Answer 223

Means benevolence, kindness, or tenderness in Pali. Fostered through daily meditation called Metta Bhavana. Practice is done through envisioning interacting with someone irritating or frustrating, and responding with Buddhist ideals: “I hope you will find peace” Feelings towards people can and should be changed, especially to those we dislike. Compassion is a learnable thing.

Question 224

Six Lessons (from Eastern Philosophy) 3. Buddhist figure Guanyin

Answer 224

Guanyin is associated with mercy, compassion, and kindness. A motherly figure in Buddhism, used as someone who followers of Buddhism can be vulnerable within her presence. One who listens and does not judge for the difficulties in life.

Question 225

Six Lessons (from Eastern Philosophy) 4. Taoism: Wu Wie

Answer 225

Means to “not make an effort” when it seems more natural to go with the flow of the universe. “One must sometimes surrender to the whole universe” The universe will enact its will upon you, and it is up to decide your attitude towards it.

Question 226

Six Lessons (from Eastern Philosophy) 5. Taoism: Bamboo as Wisdom

Answer 226

One should “Become as bamboo already is”, Tall and hollow, with its hollowness being a source of its strength, aiding it in staying up against storms. Metaphor for how we should live our lives.

Question 227

Six Lessons (from Eastern Philosophy) 6. Buddhism's Kintsug

Answer 227

Made up of two different words, Kin and Tsugi in Japanese. A shattered vase should have its shards picked up, and put back together with gold lacquer (gold sparkly glue), with no attempts to disguise the damage. Its faults are beautiful and strong. Same ideals should be attributed to people

Question 228

Lao Tzu

Answer 228

Created Taoism and is said to have created the Tao Te Ching (most likely actually written by many authors) May not be a real guy, mostly legend Taoism is a universal that governs all things. To follow Taoism, you must “live in tune with the Tao (The path)”, to lose attachment to things, and to not become overcome by desires. Human beings can never grasp ultimate reality The universe exists in flux, moving between growth and decay in a cycle “You” are not important relative to the universe and it’s flux The universe is about balance, and if you challenge it, you yourself will fall out of balance. “Stillness”, taking time to pause and appreciate nature and the universe for what it is, is imperative to finding and following the Tao. “Empty yourself of everything, let your mind become still.” This stillness is also needed to recognize and accept yourself, rather than constantly running to what you want to be. This allows your mind and soul to grow, and allow you to actually become who you need to be. Flow, stillness, openness. Yin and yang guy

Question 229

Basho

Answer 229

Poetry (Notably Haiku style) as a medium to guide us to wisdom and calm, as a part of Zen Buddhist philosophy. Born 1644 in Ueno in the Iga Province of Japan Hoped that his poetry would bring readers into mental states which were valued in Zen Buddhism. His poetry attempted to convey zen ideals, Wabi and Sabi. Wabi means simplicity and austerity (plain-nes) Sabi means an appreciation for the imperfect Nature displays Wabi and Sabi, so Basho’s work almost always focused on nature. Change, and its foreshadowing of our eventual deaths, give value to the world and our every experience. Basho’s simple but elegant is made simple so that one experiences Muga, the “loss of awareness of oneself” Pleasure should be derived from simplicity, and experience within the moment, especially when it comes to observing and becoming one with nature.

Question 230

The Buddha

Answer 230

Buddhism, 500 BCE Existence is fundamentally suffering, and this suffering can be limited by controlling our cravings and desires. Suffering stems from attachment, and it limits us from recognizing our constantly changing, impermanent, and illusory (Anatta) self. You live every life in the universe as a function of your universe transcending life. Impermanence permeates everything

Question 231

Wu Wei

Answer 231

Taoism, Made by Lao Tzu in 600 BC “non-doing”/ “Doing nothing” “Effortless action” Wu Wei is what one might feel when entering “the zone”, a place of calm concentration and efficiency. Swimming with the current of the universe, letting go of ideals that are forced too violently onto things

Question 232

Rikyu

Answer 232

Therapeutic tea drinking Born 1522 Near Osaka Japan Gave reform to the Chanoyu (Japanese tea ceremony) Promoted Wabi-Sabi Wabi means simplicity and austerity (plain-nes) Sabi means an appreciation for the imperfect Teahouse path and internal structure made to break ties with the world and make everyone inside equal. This was done by a meandering path to the teahouse, and a door that was too small to fit through without ducking and bowing. The atmosphere of the teahouse, its smells and the sounds of nature would reconnect those participating in the tea ritual, bringing them harmony with nature and a feeling of tranquillity and purity. Imperfections in the tools used to make the tea suggested a distinct wisdom they have, of the beauty of imperfection. Through their use, these tools promote this wisdom to their users.

Question 233

Confucious

Answer 233

Born in 551 BC May have been a student of Daoist creator Lao Tzu Confucious’s sayings were written down into the Analects by his followers. His version of the Golden Rule: “Do not do unto others what you don’t want done to yourself”. Ceremony is important, ritual propriety, and the emotions that can stem from rituals can be strong (having food made for you while sick), rituals are important and their effect on our lives is clear (Marriage), and rituals allow for our intentions to be clear as well. Parents should be obeyed when young, cared for when old, mourned long when dead, and sacrificed for in the name of their memory. “We cannot truly be caring, wise, crateful, and conscientious unless we remember mum’s birthday and meed dad for lunch.” We should obey honourable people. We should be modest enough to recognize and respect the accomplishments and positions that outweigh our own. Bending to the will of those superior to you is not a sign of weakness, but a showing of humility and respect. Benevolence, Ritual property, Righteousness, Wisdom, and Integrity are the 5 Constant Virtues. These virtues must be cultivated and worked on throughout one's lifetime

Question 234

Natural Theology

Answer 234

Arguments for the existence of God from reason and evidence

Question 235

Revealed Theology

Answer 235

Not philosophy Not really arguable “Jesus showed up in my mirror and told me to sell licorice”

Question 236

Cosmological Argument

Answer 236

All events have causes - those causes have causes - those causes have causes … Either we accept an infinite casual chain or one event/thing that started all the causes. (that start would be called “God” as the “Unmoved Mover”, the one who made it all start.) Counter: What caused God then? God does not explain the universe because nothing explains god.

Question 237

Teleological Argument

Answer 237

Imagine a little machine thing on the floor of a forest. You would assume purpose and a creator. Things that exhibit a design, have a designer. The designer of the universe and the world would be called “God” William Paley - watchmaker analogy. Counter: Can “order” arise without a creator? Those who disagree say yes.

Question 238

Ontological

Answer 238

God would be the greatest being imaginable. Something that exists in reality is superior to something that exists in fantasy. If God didn’t exist, you could imagine something superior (A GOD THAT DOES EXIST) Therefore to fulfill the 1st statement, God must exist. Counter: Not really much of a counter, could be argued that this is just a semantics argument and the concepts of “greatest imaginable” and “god” and “exist” and “not exist” are too vague.

Question 239

Pascals Wager

Answer 239

You have 2 choices Believe You’re right: Heaven :) You’re wrong: Just dead Don’t Believe You’re right: Just dead You’re wrong: Eternal damnation :( Catholic church threatens to excommunicate him for this “Solution”. Pascal's wager isn’t based on faith or belief, but rather just fear of eternal damnation. Counter: There are various religions to choose to believe, which one do you choose?

Question 240

Natural Evil

Answer 240

tsunamis, earthquakes, death, disease. A child is born with a genetic abnormality, lives for hours in constant pain and then dies, leaving a grieving family in turmoil with mental health issues or substance abuse or a destroyed life. No one CHOSE this, they just happen.

Question 241

Moral Evil

Answer 241

Murder, assault, war, rape, kidnapping. A racist leader begins an international conflict, directly killing millions and indirectly destroying the lives of millions more. A serial killer kills someone. Someone steals. It was based on a choice; a moral failing.

Question 242

In Monotheistic religions… God is OOG

Answer 242

Omnipotent (all-powerful, capable of anything they wish) Omniscient (all-knowing) Omnibenevolent (entirely, 100% good)

Question 243

BUT… EVIL EXISTS

Answer 243

Not just moral evil, but natural evil. Certainly people kill each other or rob each other. People sometimes choose bad actions. But a volcano can wipe out whole cities, and a tsunami can wipe out thousands in mere moments. So if God is all knowing, all powerful and all good, where did EVIL come from?

Question 244

David Hume - Scotland (1711-1776) - The Problem of Evil

Answer 244

For the common person, evil, pain and suffering are a reason to believe in God. For the thinking person, they are reasons for disbelief. Why would a good God hurt us? If we concede that any suffering, anywhere in the world, EVER has existed, than we must question the existence of an all-good, all-knowing and all-powerful God. “A wise man proportions his belief to the evidence.” -David Hume. If there isn’t evidence of an OOG God, you shouldn’t believe in one.

Question 245

According to the major monotheistic religions, God is all-knowing, all-powerful and all-good. This is the OOG God definition.

Answer 245

For needless suffering to exist, he CANNOT be all 3 of these things. Maybe he isn’t all-knowing, and would stop the suffering, but doesn’t know about it. Maybe he isn’t all-powerful, and is pained by the suffering, but cannot stop it. Maybe God knows about suffering, could stop it, but doesn’t want to because he isn’t good. THIS IS THE ONE THAT HE FEARED WOULD GET HIM KILLED.

Question 246

Basic formal logic. - The Problem of Evil

Answer 246

P1. If an omnipotent, omniscient, benevolent god exists, then evil does not. P2. There is evil in the world. C1. Therefore, an omnipotent, omnibenevolent and omniscient god does not exist.

Question 247

A Logical Contradiction is bad.

Answer 247

In philosophy, if an idea creates a logical contradiction, that idea MUST be false. X cannot be X and not X at the same time. All laws of the science and knowledge break down if we accept contradictions. But philosopher’s like finding them, because finding one means you can now ignore the contradiction-creating idea as obviously false, fake or logically impossible. Evidence of a contradiction in a belief system, destroys the belief system. “In formal logic, a contradiction is the signal of defeat, but in the evolution of real knowledge it marks the first step in progress towards victory.” - Alfred North Whitehead

Question 248

This is a serious problem. (of evil)

Answer 248

Keep in mind what Hume did here. This is a direct attack on the basis for ALL monotheistic religions. It CANNOT go unaddressed. It is logical, valid, and clear. And although he wasn’t religious, it doesn’t contain any real bias that would skew the outcome. You can’t just say “he’s biased” and the argument goes away, because it doesn’t. David Hume was a well known and well respected philosopher of the Scottish Enlightenment. His ideas and words carried weight. He had clout.

Question 249

But theistic philosophers have been working on defenses to the Problem of Evil since it was first stated. But

Answer 249

But how can this be rationalized? How do you rationalize an all-good, all-knowing and all-powerful God with the existence of evil?

Question 250

Free Will Defence

Answer 250

This argument suggests that moral evil, such as human actions like murder or theft, arises from the existence of free will. God, in His omnibenevolence, granted humans the gift of free will to choose between good and evil, These, evil actions are the result of humans misusing their free will rather than a direct act of God.

Question 251

Soul-Making Theodicy

Answer 251

This argument suggests that the presence of suffering and evil in the world serves a greater purpose in the development and refinement of human souls. Through facing and overcoming challenges, individuals grow in moral and spiritual maturity, ultimately leading to a deeper relationship with god.

Question 252

Free Will is..

Answer 252

one of the most crucial ideas in philosophy. Our identity is wrapped up in the choices we make. You think you are smart because you choose to study. You are funny because you choose to make a joke. You are successful because your intelligent choices mean you deserve it. We see our future as the creation of our choices. We see our past as a result of choices made by ourselves and by others. We punish people and reward others because of their decisions. We give access to money, to material goods, and to an easier life based on the concept that free will is legitimate. But do we actually HAVE free will?

Question 253

Consequences? Forget about that for now.. (Free will)

Answer 253

This isn’t about consequences, or just about things that INFLUENCE your actions. Let’s say I don’t want to teach philosophy, in a philosophy class. I decide to teach MATH. I can do that. I can’t do that without getting into trouble. But I can accept that trouble and do it anyway. Free will =/= lack of consequences.

Question 254

Can Free Will Exist? - 1. THE RELIGIOUS WORLD VIEW

Answer 254

God knows all and sees all – past, present and future. Therefore, you cannot make a choice that God doesn’t already know. If your choices are already known, then by definition, you do not have free will. Of course….if God DOESN’T know what you will choose, then God isn’t omnipotent. And we’re sliding into the OOG problem again.

Question 255

Can Free Will Exist? - 2. THE EARLY MODERN SCIENTIFIC VIEW

Answer 255

All events follow the physical laws of the universe. You are composed of exactly the same materials as everything else in the universe = you follow the laws too.

Question 256

THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Answer 256

States that energy is neither created nor destroyed. It simply changes form. Electrical energy is resisted by a filament and becomes heat. Heat can became visible light. Microwaves use mw energy to vibrate water molecules. This motion becomes heat, and it cooks your food. The food cannot “CHOOSE” to not get cooked.

Question 257

THE 1ST LAW AND YOU

Answer 257

This would mean that all of your physical actions/reactions are controlled by the same law, and that you CANNOT create energy (ie. A thought, or a motion) No thoughts are actually ‘created’ by you. Thoughts are a result of electrical signals (energy) travelling along neural pathways that you didn’t CHOOSE to create. You cannot create energy. Therefore none of your actions (the outward display of earlier thoughts) are created by you either.

Question 258

STOVE EXAMPLE

Answer 258

You set your hand on a stove. Its hot, your hand burns, so you decide you move your hand. Easy right? But no, because all these scientific processes that urge you to move you're hand are happening

Question 259

WHEN THE SIGNAL REACHES YOUR BRAIN….

Answer 259

You PERCEIVE it has pain and you don’t like it. Your brain ‘decides’ to move your hand to avoid this pain. This sensation evolved to prevent injury to the organism experiencing pain, and causing them to move away = increasing their chance of survival. That ‘thought’ that is ‘created’ does a similarly complicated thing, and then the process of moving your hand is even MORE complicated.

Question 260

THE POINT…… (Physical law free will)

Answer 260

All of these processes are governed by physical laws, in response to the heat of the stove. Energy has transferred from stove to the receptors on your skin.

Question 261

EVEN THE THOUGHT INSIDE YOUR HEAD….

Answer 261

Could not have been independently created inside your brain (remember – energy is neither created nor destroyed) Therefore you cannot ever create your own thoughts, because they all must follow these physical laws. You cannot ‘create’ electrical impulses out of nothing. Just like an apple falling from a tree must follow the laws of the universe, so does your physical body.

Question 262

RECENT STUDIES Have shown that there is

Answer 262

activity in your brain as a result of stimuli, BEFORE you are even aware of it. They can test this because in a CAT or PET scan, your brainstem and cerebellum respond before your cerebrum. That means, your brain is reacting and THEN you become aware of that reaction in your conscious mind. ‘You’ are always a step behind your brain.

Question 263

THIS WOULD MEAN THAT… Our brains, with millions of neurons, and BILLIONS of connections, are nothing more than

Answer 263

extremely complicated machines – they process information, and spit out the result that they are supposed to. Everything you have ever done was predetermined by past events. Those past events were also determined by past events….and so on.

Question 264

Can Free Will Exist? - 3. QUANTUM SCIENCE VIEW

Answer 264

Einstein believed that free will was an illusion. Quantum physics says that bodies in motion cannot be predicted, but are given to random and strange unpredictable motions. It is not really determined, it is more probabilistic.

Question 265

Free will vs Randomness?

Answer 265

That would mean that the universe is random and unpredictable. A causal relationship would never really exist. That sounds even worse than no free will – the illusion that our free will actually matters, when in fact, the random movement of subatomic particles makes any ‘choice’ it wants to. We then perceive things, and label them as either inevitable (gravity) or a result of ‘free will’ - when neither is true.

Question 266

Can Free Will Exist - 4. CHAOS THEORY

Answer 266

Traditional science deals with supposedly predictable phenomena like gravity, electricity, or chemical reactions, Chaos Theory deals with nonlinear things that are effectively impossible to predict or control, like turbulence, weather, the stock market, our brain states, and so on. Butterfly effect – A butterfly flapping its wings in Japan will cause a storm in New York City.

Question 267

CHAOS THEORY SAVES THE DAY?

Answer 267

The future is only knowable if we were able to view the whole of space and time from the outside. But for us, and our consciousnesses, imbedded within space-time, that future is never knowable to us. It is that very unpredictability that gives us an open future. The choices we make are, to us, real choices, and because of the butterfly effect, tiny changes brought about by our different decisions can lead to very different outcomes, and hence different futures. These insignificant changes, will determine your possible future choices, however…….. "A man can surely do what he wills to do, but cannot determine what he wills" - Arthur Schopenhauer

Question 268

Existentialism A complex philosophy..

Answer 268

emphasizing the absurdity of reality and the human responsibility to make choices and accept consequences!

Question 269

In the late 1800s and early 1900s (Existentialism)

Answer 269

Science was expanding and providing new technology. In medicine, product development, communications, electrical generation, transportation and consumer goods, people thought that the next 100 years would bring peace and prosperity. But by the 1940s, the world had been through global war twice, and a huge economic downturn in the 1930s. Society looked like it would never realize any progress at all. We couldn’t seem to stop ourselves from destroying ourselves.

Question 270

Existentialism At its most basic...

Answer 270

If worldwide war, depression and the Holocaust are possible, how can anyone really believe that the world has a pre-ordained order or a benevolent higher power?

Question 271

Existence Precedes Essence

Answer 271

Existentialism is a set of philosophical ideals that emphasize the existence of the human being, the lack of meaning and purpose in life, and the solitude of human existence… “Existence precedes essence” implies that the human being has no essence (no essential self).

Question 272

Absurdism

Answer 272

The belief that nothing can explain or rationalize human existence. There is no answer to “Why am I existing?” Humans exist in a meaningless, irrational universe and any search for order will bring them into direct conflict with this universe. (closely related to Nihilism - which says nothing matters at all)

Question 273

Choice and Commitment

Answer 273

Humans have freedom to choose. Each individual makes choices that create his or her own nature. Because we choose, we must accept risk and responsibility for wherever our commitments take us. “A human being is absolutely free and absolutely responsible. Anguish is the result.” –Jean-Paul Sartre

Question 274

Dread and Anxiety

Answer 274

Dread is a feeling of general apprehension. Kierkegaard interpreted it as God’s way of calling each individual to make a commitment to a personally valid way of life. Anxiety stems from our understanding and recognition of the total freedom of choice that confronts us every moment, and the individual’s confrontation with nothingness.

Question 275

Nothingness and Death

Answer 275

Death hangs over all of us. Our awareness of it can bring freedom or anguish. I am my own existence. Nothing structures my world. “Nothingness is our inherent lack of self. We are in constant pursuit of a self. Nothingness is the creative well-spring from which all human possibilities can be realized.” –Jean-Paul Sartre

Question 276

Alienation

Answer 276

From all other humans From human institutions From the past From the future We only exist right now, right here.

Question 277

All existentialists are concerned with the study of being or ontology. TO REVIEW:

Answer 277

An existentialist believes that a person’s life is nothing but the sum of the life he has shaped for himself. At every moment it is always his own free will choosing how to act. He is responsible for his actions, which limit future actions. Thus, he must create a morality in the absence of any known predetermined absolute values. God does not figure into the equation, because even if God does exist, He does not reveal to men the meaning of their lives. Honesty with oneself is the most important value. Every decision must be weighed in light of all the consequences of that action. Life is absurd, but we engage it!

Question 278

Some Famous Existentialists

Answer 278

Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) Albert Camus (1913-1960) AND Simone DeBeavoir

Question 279

Albert Camus dissociated himself from the existentialists but acknowledged man’s lonely condition in the universe.

Answer 279

His “man of the absurd” (or absurd hero) rejects despair and commits himself to the anguish and the responsibility of living as best he can. Basically, we create ourselves through the choices we make. There are no guides for these choices, but we have to make them anyway, which renders life absurd.

Question 280

Living in Bad Faith

Answer 280

Every time we blame someone else for something, every time we refuse to accept responsibility for our actions or choices, we are living in bad faith.

Question 281

So....Why Zombies?

Answer 281

In the apocalyptic wasteland, definitions, possessions and jobs no longer matter. Good and bad MAY be completely relative. Being good may not help at all. So why be good? You need your own reasons to be good God’s presence is gone. The people are all isolated and alienated from each other. Life may be hopeless and absurd, because most, if not all, are doomed. They live without a future, and without a meaningful past. But they continue and that is what it means to be human.

Question 282

The Walking Dead

Answer 282

This has been made even more obvious in this series. The survivors walk from place to place, avoiding death (sometimes) and doing what they can to get by and find meaning. At one point, the main protagonist Rick Grimes declares that they have it backwards – THEY are the walking dead, not the zombies.

Question 283

You are the Walking Dead.

Answer 283

It is the one certainty of your existence. Existentialists would say that you know this, but still, you continue. Your life is absurd because it has no meaning except the one you created for it. But still, you persist.

Question 284

What Is Time

Answer 284

Try to develop a definition of ‘Time’ – what is it? What does the term ‘time’ mean?

Question 285

Historically, (Time)

Answer 285

This question didn’t even matter that much. Everyone just followed the sun, the seasons, or the lives of kings or rulers. You ate during the day, you slept at night. It was summertime. It was the 7th year of King John...or whatever. The reality of “time” wasn’t questioned.

Question 286

The Clock?

Answer 286

Most people now simply define time as what a clock measures, but this is not a good definition – clocks simply MEASURE time – they aren’t time. A clock is a measurement tool - like a metre stick or a scale. What is it measuring?

Question 287

A River?

Answer 287

Some will use a river analogy, that time is like a river, flowing in one direction BUT a river GOES somewhere, and is pulled in that direction by gravity = where does time go? What is pulling it in that direction?

Question 288

Right Now Why can we not interact with

Answer 288

different times? Why does only ‘RIGHT NOW’ seem to exist in a meaningful sense?

Question 289

Definition 1 – Time is Entropy

Answer 289

Time is a measurement of order going to disorder. The universe is going from an organized system to a less organized system...the measurement of this is TIME.

Question 290

Definition 2 – Time is Motion

Answer 290

Imagine a world where nothing moves. No clocks, no sound (vibrations in air), no wind, no light (motion of electromagnetic radiation through space). Without motion, there is no time. Nothing can age if it is frozen in place. Time, ultimately, boils down to the ratio of distance to motion. T=D/R. You learn this in high school algebra, but most people prefer to think of time as something far more abstract, metaphysical, or philosophical. This would mean that “Time is just the ordering of events as they happen and one follows the next” There is just a series of static times that our brains somehow link together to form a ‘timeline’ - just like a film is a series of static images. Time and movement are now illusions?

Question 291

Definition 3 – Time was Created by the Big Bang

Answer 291

Cosmologists would suggest that time began with the creation of the universe--the moment of the big bang, some 13.7 billion years ago. In this regard, time would not be infinite in both directions. It would be meaningless to refer to time before the beginning of time--"before" there was anything to measure. Just because we can conceive of something, such as "before the big bang" or "flying pink unicorns" does not mean such things must exist.

Question 292

Definition 4 – Time is the Lorentz Transformation

Answer 292

To = Ts /[ (1-v2/c2)0.5] Where T=Time, o=objective, s=subjective, and v=velocity. This is saying that Time is actually dependent on the speed you are travelling. The faster you travel, the slower the time goes. Time is not objective.

Question 293

Einstein’s Twin Paradox

Answer 293

One twin stays on earth, the other gets into a spaceship and travels at the speed of light. In 50 years, the earth twin will be 50 years older. The space twin will not be older at all.

Question 294

Definition 5 – Time Doesn’t Exist

Answer 294

Time is an artificial, abstract human invention that mankind uses to organize our recollection and understanding of past events and to anticipate, to some degree of accuracy, predictable future events. In the physical world, there is no time - there is no past, there is no future. Memories of the past, and considerations about the future, are constructs of our own minds - they do not exist in the physical world. Physically, there is only now. It is also possible, that ALL time exists right now. The past is still occuring, and the future has happened somewhere already. Think of the implications if this is true. It is mind-blowing!

Question 295

Definition 6 – Time is the Fourth Dimension

Answer 295

Time is the fourth dimension in the space-time continuum. It's a part of the fabric of space-time. The universe exists in three dimensions, and we might call them length, width and depth. It is possible to label them x, y and z. But all of the things in the universe can move through it, and this movement - any movement - happens across the fourth dimension, a dimension we call time. As an object is displaced across a distance in space, it also moves across time simultaneously. Time is not constant, but it is universal, and nothing can happen in space that does not happen in time as well. From the movement of a subatomic particle in any situation to the movement of a galactic cluster through the blackness of the universe, this displacement happens across the dimension of time as well as the three dimensions we're used to thinking about.

Question 296

Definition 7 – The Multiverse

Answer 296

Term coined by William James The idea that there could potentially be numerous universes, including our own.

Question 297

Two types of Logic Deductive and Inductive Wrong and Right Categorical and Disjunctive Compound and Singular

Answer 297

Answer: Deductive and Inductive

Question 298

He died by hemlock poison. Plato Socrates Aristotle Bacon

Answer 298

Answer: Socrates

Question 299

Out of the people we examined, he believed that the Gods were responsible for all creation. Thales Anaxagora Socrates Hesiod

Answer 299

Answer: Hesiod

Question 300

This field of philosophy examines reality. Ethics Logic Epistemology Metaphysics

Answer 300

Answer: Metaphysics

Question 301

What is the correct order? Socrates, Aristotle, Plato Alexander, Socrates, Plato Socrates, Plato, Aristotle Aristotle, Socrates, Plato

Answer 301

Answer: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle

Question 302

"You're just wrong! You must be because your grades are horrible!" Strawman Slippery Slope Composition Ad hominem

Answer 302

Answer: Ad hominem

Question 303

Plato' school was called: The Lyceaum The Academy The Agora Hogwart's

Answer 303

Answer: The Academy

Question 304

Either day or night. Its not day, so it must be night. hypothetical categorical syllogynistic disjunctive

Answer 304

Answer: disjunctive

Question 305

The Keg makes great food. So their steak must be good. deductive inductive reductive suductive

Answer 305

Answer: Deductive

Question 306

The World of Forms was an idea from: Aristotle Pythagoras Plato Thales

Answer 306

Answer: Plato

Question 307

Every object in the ____________________ is flawed. Monistic world Material world Form world First world

Answer 307

Answer: Material World

Question 308

The cause of consciousness: is unknown is in the pineal gland was a topic of Nietzsche is dualist

Answer 308

Answer: is unknown

Question 309

The tao is also known as _____________________ The Form The Way The Cave The Wave

Answer 309

Answer: the way

Question 310

The Sun represents: Death Life Knowledge Power

Answer 310

Answer: Knowledge

Question 311

The Cave story is known as______________________ an analogy an allegory a metaphor a simile

Answer 311

Answer: An allegory

Question 312

The Value of Philosophy was written by: Ayn Rand Bertrand Russell Plato Aristotle

Answer 312

Answer: Bertrand Russell

Question 313

You can believe...and then go to heaven! Ontological Telelogical Pascal Cosmological

Answer 313

Answer: Pascal

Question 314

The founder of Buddhism was: Atman Kongfuzi Guatama Lao Tzu

Answer 314

Answer: Guatama

Question 315

God would be the greatest being imaginable. Teleological Ontological Cosmological Pascal

Answer 315

Answer: Ontological

Question 316

The universe is made up of ONE thing. Monism Universalism Identity Singularism

Answer 316

Answer: Monism

Question 317

Which is a proposition? RUN! NOW! Do you like cake? My aunt is sick. JUST DO IT!

Answer 317

Answer: My aunt is sick.

Question 318

Philo and sophia. What is most correct below? Knowledge and power Friend and Knowledge Love and Books Love and wisdom

Answer 318

Answer: Love and wisdom

Question 319

Entropy is Body fat Breaking down Breaking Bad Laziness

Answer 319

Answer: Breaking down

Question 320

Which is NOT a reason to doubt free will? All-knowing god Thermodynamics Existentialism Quantum theory

Answer 320

Answer: Existentialism

Question 321

Argument by design Teleological Ontological Cosmological Pascal

Answer 321

Answer: Teleogical

Question 322

An earthquake destroys a village. Evolutionary evil moral evil fallacious evil natural evil

Answer 322

Answer: Natural evil

Question 323

You have a personal conversation with God. natural theology revealed theology academic theology abnormal psychology

Answer 323

Answer: Revealed theology

Question 324

Which order is correct? Plato, Alexander, Socrates, Aristotle Aristotle, Socrates, Plato Alexander Alexander, Plato, Socrates, Aristotle Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Alexander

Answer 324

Answer: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Alexander

Question 325

When you realize you have freedom, according to Existentialism. Happiness Sadness Anxiety Joy

Answer 325

Answer: Anxiety

Question 326

The highest form in the World of Forms is: Goodness Table Friendly Happiness

Answer 326

Answer: Goodness

Question 327

Anxiety in Existentialism... is when you have a test you didn't study for. is when you are late for work. is when you realize you are free. is when you can't determine valid versus sound

Answer 327

Answer: is when you realize you are free.

Question 328

Socrates is from: Athens Sparta Rome Milesia

Answer 328

Answer: Athens

Question 329

Hesiod explained the universe using: Logic Religion Observation Philosophical deduction

Answer 329

Answer: Religion

Question 330

Which would be a 'form'? Basketball Sun Circle Wheel

Answer 330

Answer: Circle

Question 331

Metaphysics is the study of: Knowledge Logic Meaning Reality

Answer 331

Answer: Reality

Question 332

What is Metaphysics? What type of topics are discussed in Metaphysics?

Answer 332

Metaphysics is the study of the basic structure of reality. Topics include: Being and Nothingness Time Freedom and Determinism Mind and Body Personhood Nature and Supreme Beings

Question 333

Pre-Socratic Philosophers - Hesiod

Answer 333

Hesiod: Greek poet around 800 BCE - around the same time as Homer (Illiad and the Odyssey) Considered one of the greatest myth-creators in the Ancient World He is considered to be the conservative, orthodox version of Greek religion - the gods are all around, and they are not good. Man’s lot in life is to work and suffer, and never understand why. All natural events are because of the gods, and the gods don’t like you. The gods have all the WORST human character traits….PLUS superhuman powers.

Question 334

Pre-Socratic Philosophers - Thales

Answer 334

Born in Miletus around 625. Not very satisfied with the traditional explanation of existence. Wondered if the universe and everything in it was created of a substance - that you came from, and eventually went back to upon death. Think ‘ashes to ashes’ sort of thing. He believes that it may be water - as all things need water to live, and even in the driest seeds there is a drop of water that allows the seed to survive. Without water everything dies - perhaps water is the essential ‘thing’ in the universe

Question 335

Pre-Socratic Philosophers - Anaximander

Answer 335

Born in 611 BCE Humans could not have always looked like this - we are defenseless in a natural state and our young require YEARS to live on their own. The ‘first human’ would have been eaten immediately. Early creatures probably all emerged from the water. The infinite (apeiron) is like god. It is the force of the universe that didn’t have a beginning - its always been there. The divine is deathless. The earth is suspended aloft on air, and rotates around.

Question 336

Pre-Socratic Philosophers - Anaximenes

Answer 336

Born in 585 BCE Air is the fundamental substance of existence. When it changes, it becomes different things - it can be fire, or water, or steam. Stars are actually small pieces of fire, very far away. When they change form, they become dilated and rise up into the sky. Heavy rains and dry spells cause earthquakes, and can damage communities.

Question 337

Pre-Socratic Philosophers -Xenophanes

Answer 337

Born 570 The stories of the gods are useless, made-up concepts. People make up the gods that represent them. African gods look African. Greek gods look Greek. If they were really gods, they would not look or act like us at all. As they cannot die, they could not be made of human bodies. As they are not affected by time, they cannot be made of stuff from Earth. No one knows the truth. And even if we stumble upon the truth, other people will argue against it.

Question 338

Pre-Socratic - Why Study these People?

Answer 338

The importance is not in WHAT they thought, but what changes were happening to human thought around this time. They believed that there was a unity to all things, and that supernatural explanations should be abandoned if we wish to find truth. They saw existence as orderly, and that order could be understood through a process of rational inquiry. They set the conditions for philosophy and science to flourish.

Question 339

Pre-Socratic - Around this time…

Answer 339

Greece was rocky, divided and surrounded by water. There are thousands of islands. There are mountains and naturals barriers everywhere. Food was difficult to grow in major quantities. Resources are not plentiful. Ancient Greece is divided politically. The people rarely unite together. Because resources are scarce everyone is seen as competition. Fighting is common. Warfare or the threat of warfare is endemic. Natural disasters can wipe out your home, or your whole village - tidal waves, storms, volcanoes - all occur there. Everyone is trying to explain this natural evil through God but they took on more of a scientific approach

Question 340

Plato - World of Forms vs Material World - why did he come up with this idea?

Answer 340

One day, Plato had two problems floating around his mind……… 1) How can humans live a fulfilling, happy life in a contingent, changing world where everything they attach themselves to can be taken away? 2) How can the world appear to be both permanent and changing? The world we perceive through the senses seems to be always changing. The world that we perceive through the mind, using our concepts, seems to be permanent and unchanging. Which is most real and why does it appear both ways? As a solution to his problems, Plato splits existence into two realms: the material realm and the transcendent realm of forms.

Question 341

What is a form? Why did he believe in an actual “WORLD” of forms? (circles)

Answer 341

Humans have access to the world of forms through the mind, through reason. This gives them access to an unchanging world, invulnerable to the pains and changes of the material world. We should hold on to the material world less, and focus more on the forms. The second realm is the immaterial world of forms (ideals) Every human has access to the world of forms through introspection.

Question 342

How can this idea be applied in various contexts? (forms)

Answer 342

Think of yourself. You know your name, and who you are, and you believe yourself to be the same person as you were years ago. This however, is untrue. According to a Stanford Study, you have roughly 37 trillion cells in your body, and they will be replaced within 10 years on average. Although your cells are constantly dying and being replaced, and you are NOT the same physical person, the IDEA of you survives. A material object, a basketball, exists at a particular place at a particular time. A form, roundness, does not exist at any place or time. The forms are also pure. This means that they are pure properties separated from all other properties. A material object, such as a basketball, has many properties: roundness, orange, elasticity, etc. These are all put together to make up this individual basketball.

Question 343

Aristotle - How he differs from Plato Why didn’t he like Plato’s ideas?

Answer 343

The Problem of Christmas Chorismos is Greek for separation. In Plato’s metaphysics, there is too much of a separation between the Forms and sensible objects for the Forms to be the sources of material objects. Plato’s attempts at explaining the relationship between the Forms and sensible objects are merely “empty words and poetical metaphors.” The Problem of Change Plato maintained that there is change in the World of Becoming (material world) Plato, however, did NOT explain how this change occurs. Why should there be change in the World of Becoming anyway, since it’s supposed to be a copy of the changeless World of Being?

Question 344

How is Aristotle much more scientific than Plato?

Answer 344

Plato maintained that the Forms are transcendent realities. Aristotle maintained that form is within particular substances. Stuffed animal analogy - Matter is like the stuffing. Form is like the outer skin. He believed that Matter and form are distinct but indivisible. Neither pure form nor pure matter exists. They exist only united to one another in particular substances. E. g. ‘tableness’ does NOT exist apart from particular tables in some fantastic World of Being. Tableness exists only in particular tables. While they are indivisible, matter and form are distinct because, if they were not, substantial change would be impossible. Every object is made of something anf it’s shape and properties are it’s form

Question 345

Natural Theology

Answer 345

Arguments for the existence of God from reason and evidence Using some sort of logic - all of the following are natural

Question 346

Revealed Theology

Answer 346

Not philosophy Not really arguable “Jesus showed up in my mirror and told me to sell licorice” Like “it came to me in a dream”

Question 347

Ontological

Answer 347

God would be the greatest being imaginable. God is Possible Since he is the greatest being, him being real is superior to him not being real Therefore, he must be real Something that exists in reality is superior to something that exists in fantasy. If God didn’t exist, you could imagine something superior (A GOD THAT DOES EXIST) Therefore to fulfill the 1st statement, God must exist. Counter: Not really much of a counter, could be argued that this is just a semantics argument and the concepts of “greatest imaginable” and “god” and “exist” and “not exist” are too vague.

Question 348

Teleological

Answer 348

Imagine a little machine thing on the floor of a forest. You would assume purpose and a creator. Things that exhibit a design, have a designer. The designer of the universe and the world would be called “God” William Paley - watchmaker analogy. Counter: Can “order” arise without a creator? Those who disagree say yes.

Question 349

Cosmological

Answer 349

All events have causes - those causes have causes - those causes have causes … Either we accept an infinite casual chain or one event/thing that started all the causes. (that start would be called “God” as the “Unmoved Mover”, the one who made it all start.) Counter: What caused God then? God does not explain the universe because nothing explains god.

Question 350

Pascal’s Wager - Why should people believe in God, according to Pascal?

Answer 350

You have 2 choices Believe You’re right: Heaven :) You’re wrong: Just dead Don’t Believe You’re right: Just dead You’re wrong: Eternal damnation :( Catholic church threatens to excommunicate him for this “Solution”. Pascal's wager isn’t based on faith or belief, but rather just fear of eternal damnation. Counter: There are various religions to choose to believe, which one do you choose?

Question 351

The OOG God and why its a problem for religion

Answer 351

In Monotheistic religions… God is OOG Omnipotent (all-powerful, capable of anything they wish) Omniscient (all-knowing) Omnibenevolent (entirely, 100% good) BUT… EVIL EXISTS Not just moral evil, but natural evil. Certainly people kill each other or rob each other. People sometimes choose bad actions. But a volcano can wipe out whole cities, and a tsunami can wipe out thousands in mere moments. So if God is all knowing, all powerful and all good, where did EVIL come from?

Question 352

Natural vs moral evil - What is the difference?

Answer 352

Natural Evil - tsunamis, earthquakes, death, disease. A child is born with a genetic abnormality, lives for hours in constant pain and then dies, leaving a grieving family in turmoil with mental health issues or substance abuse or a destroyed life. No one CHOSE this, they just happen. Moral Evil - Murder, assault, war, rape, kidnapping. A racist leader begins an international conflict, directly killing millions and indirectly destroying the lives of millions more. A serial killer kills someone. Someone steals. It was based on a choice; a moral failing

Question 353

Free Will Defence

Answer 353

This argument suggests that moral evil, such as human actions like murder or theft, arises from the existence of free will. God, in His omnibenevolence, granted humans the gift of free will to choose between good and evil, These, evil actions are the result of humans misusing their free will rather than a direct act of God.

Question 354

Soul-Making Theodicy

Answer 354

This argument suggests that the presence of suffering and evil in the world serves a greater purpose in the development and refinement of human souls. Through facing and overcoming challenges, individuals grow in moral and spiritual maturity, ultimately leading to a deeper relationship with god.

Question 355

Upanishads - what is ultimate reality?

Answer 355

– the universe is one thing – the Universe is only one reality, which we can call God or Brahman if we want - written 800-500BCE - the oldest Hindu scriptures that exist We will eventually wake from this world, and we will be in a higher reality We will look back at this life, as if it was a dream – just like a dream, this world only seems real because we are still in it

Question 356

Taoism - the way - Lao Tzu - live within the Tao

Answer 356

Taoism – the Tao or the Way – a universal force that governs all things - that isn’t close to a complete definition 500 BCE (ish) by Lao Tzu You must attempt to live in tune with the Tao – to constantly change, not feel attachment to things, and not be overcome by desires Human beings can never grasp ultimate reality.

Question 357

Buddhism - existence is suffering - better understanding of what is important (4 noble truths) leads to less suffering

Answer 357

encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices based on the teachings of Siddhartha Guatama - aka Buddha all life is suffering, which can be limited by controlling our cravings and desires around 500 BCE We suffer because we are attached to our things, our past, ourselves as individuals You are just an illusion = anatta. You are constantly changing, and impermanent.

Question 358

“You are what the universe is doing right now, just like a wave is what the ocean is doing right now”

Answer 358

He's suggesting that your existence is not separate from the unfolding of the cosmos. Just like a wave is not separate from the ocean but rather an expression of its movement and energy, you are an expression of the universe's ongoing activity.

Question 359

Existence Precedes Essence

Answer 359

Existentialism is a set of philosophical ideals that emphasize the existence of the human being, the lack of meaning and purpose in life, and the solitude of human existence… “Existence precedes essence” implies that the human being has no essence (no essential self).

Question 360

Anxiety

Answer 360

Anxiety stems from our understanding and recognition of the total freedom of choice that confronts us every moment, and the individual’s confrontation with nothingness.

Question 361

Despair

Answer 361

Dread is a feeling of general apprehension. Kierkegaard interpreted it as God’s way of calling each individual to make a commitment to a personally valid way of life.

Question 362

Alienation

Answer 362

From all other humans From human institutions From the past From the future We only exist right now, right here.

Question 363

Absurdity

Answer 363

The belief is that nothing can explain or rationalize human existence. There is no answer to “Why am I existing?” Humans exist in a meaningless, irrational universe and any search for order will bring them into direct conflict with this universe. (closely related to Nihilism - which says nothing matters at all)

Question 364

Big names - Sad Soren Kiekegaard, Sartre, de Beauvoir, Camus Some Famous Existentialists

Answer 364

Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) Albert Camus (1913-1960) AND Simone DeBeavoir

Question 365

Why did existentialism emerge as a philosophy?

Answer 365

In the late 1800s and early 1900s Science was expanding and providing new technology. In medicine, product development, communications, electrical generation, transportation and consumer goods, people thought that the next 100 years would bring peace and prosperity. But by the 1940s, the world had been through global war twice, and a huge economic downturn in the 1930s. Society looked like it would never realize any progress at all. We couldn’t seem to stop ourselves from destroying ourselves. At its most basic... If worldwide war, depression and the Holocaust are possible, how can anyone really believe that the world has a pre-ordained order or a benevolent higher power?

Question 366

What is living in “bad faith”?

Answer 366

Every time we blame someone else for something, every time we refuse to accept responsibility for our actions or choices, we are living in bad faith.

Question 367

Free Will - do we have it? Why or why not? What reasons exist for NOT believing in free will? If God knows everything, can we have free will?

Answer 367

God knows all and sees all – past, present and future. Therefore, you cannot make a choice that God doesn’t already know. If your choices are already known, then by definition, you do not have free will. Of course….if God DOESN’T know what you will choose, then God isn’t omnipotent. And we’re sliding into the OOG problem again.

Question 368

If the laws of physics also govern OUR actions and thoughts, can we have free will?

Answer 368

All events follow the physical laws of the universe. You are composed of exactly the same materials as everything else in the universe = you follow the laws too.

Question 369

Determinism vs Compatibilism

Answer 369

Determinism: Determinism asserts that every event in the universe, including human decisions and actions, is causally inevitable. It holds that when a person makes a specific decision or takes a particular action, they cannot have chosen differently or acted otherwise. This perspective denies the existence of genuine free will, suggesting that individuals are bound by the causal chain of preceding events (Allen, 2024). Compatibilism. Soft determinism (or compatibilism) is the position or view that causal determinism is true, but we still act as free, morally responsible agents when, in the absence of external constraints, our actions are caused by our desires. Compatibilism does not maintain that humans are free.

Question 370

Time - what are some of the various explanations for time? Definition 1 – Time is Entropy

Answer 370

Time is a measurement of order going to disorder. The universe is going from an organized system to a less organized system...the measurement of this is TIME.

Question 371

Definition 2 – Time is Motion

Answer 371

Imagine a world where nothing moves. No clocks, no sound (vibrations in air), no wind, no light (motion of electromagnetic radiation through space). Without motion, there is no time. Nothing can age if it is frozen in place. Time, ultimately, boils down to the ratio of distance to motion. T=D/R. You learn this in high school algebra, but most people prefer to think of time as something far more abstract, metaphysical, or philosophical. This would mean that “Time is just the ordering of events as they happen and one follows the next” There is just a series of static times that our brains somehow link together to form a ‘timeline’ - just like a film is a series of static images. Time and movement are now illusions?

Question 372

Definition 3 – Time was Created by the Big Bang

Answer 372

Cosmologists would suggest that time began with the creation of the universe--the moment of the big bang, some 13.7 billion years ago. In this regard, time would not be infinite in both directions. It would be meaningless to refer to time before the beginning of time--"before" there was anything to measure. Just because we can conceive of something, such as "before the big bang" or "flying pink unicorns" does not mean such things must exist.

Question 373

Definition 4 – Time is the Lorentz Transformation

Answer 373

To = Ts /[ (1-v2/c2)0.5] Where T=Time, o=objective, s=subjective, and v=velocity. This is saying that Time is actually dependent on the speed you are travelling. The faster you travel, the slower the time goes. Time is not objective.

Question 374

Definition 5 – Time Doesn’t Exist

Answer 374

Time is an artificial, abstract human invention that mankind uses to organize our recollection and understanding of past events and to anticipate, to some degree of accuracy, predictable future events. In the physical world, there is no time - there is no past, there is no future. Memories of the past, and considerations about the future, are constructs of our own minds - they do not exist in the physical world. Physically, there is only now. It is also possible, that ALL time exists right now. The past is still occuring, and the future has happened somewhere already. Think of the implications if this is true. It is mind-blowing!

Question 375

Definition 6 – Time is the Fourth Dimension

Answer 375

Time is the fourth dimension in the space-time continuum. It's a part of the fabric of space-time. The universe exists in three dimensions, and we might call them length, width and depth. It is possible to label them x, y and z. But all of the things in the universe can move through it, and this movement - any movement - happens across the fourth dimension, a dimension we call time. As an object is displaced across a distance in space, it also moves across time simultaneously. Time is not constant, but it is universal, and nothing can happen in space that does not happen in time as well. From the movement of a subatomic particle in any situation to the movement of a galactic cluster through the blackness of the universe, this displacement happens across the dimension of time as well as the three dimensions we're used to thinking about.

Question 376

Definition 7 – The Multiverse

Answer 376

Term coined by William James The idea that there could potentially be numerous universes, including our own.

Question 377

While they are indivisible, matter and form are distinct because, if they were not,

Answer 377

substantial change would be impossible.