Physiological Psychology Flashcards
(129 cards)
1
Q
Franz Gall had one of the earliest theories that __, __, and __ might be linked to __ __.
He developed the doctrine of __, which suggested that..
A
behaviour, intellect and personality; brain anatomy; if a particular trait were well developed, then the part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand. This expansion would push the area of the skill that covered that pert of the brain outward and therefore cause a bulge on the head.
2
Q
Although phrenology was shown to be false, it did generate serious research on brain functions, which was the impetus for the work of __ __ in the early 19th century.
A
Pierre Flourens
3
Q
Pierre Flourens was the first person to study the…
He did this by..
A
major sections of the brain; extirpation (ablation), which is when various parts of the brain are surgically removed and the behavioural consequences are observed.
4
Q
Flouren’s work led to his assertion that the brain had…
A
specific parts for specific functions, and that removal of one part weakens the whole brain
5
Q
William James (1842-1910) believed it was important to study how... His view was among the first theories that formed \_\_, a system of though in psychology that was concerned with..
A
the mind functioned in adapting to the environment.
functionalism; studying how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments
6
Q
John Dewey is another important name in __, since his 1982 article is seen as it’s inception.
Dewey’s article did what?
Dewey believed that psychology should focus on the study of…
A
functionalism; criticized the concept of the reflex arc, which breaks the process of reacting to stimulus into discreet parts; the organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to its environment.
7
Q
Around 1860, Paul Broca began examining behavioural deficits of people with brain damage. He was the first person to demonstrate that…
Broca found that a man who had been unable to…
A
specific functional impairments could be linked with specific brain lesions.
talk was unable to do so because of a lesion on the left side of the brain, known as broca’s area.
8
Q
Johanne’s Muller identified the law of __ __ __, which states that..
A
specific nerve energies, each sensory nerve is excited by only one kind of energy (e.g., light or air vibrations). Furthermore, the brain interprets any stimulation of that nerve as being that kind of energy.
9
Q
Hermann von Helmholtz was the first to measure the…
By doing this, he has been credited for…
A
speed of a nerve impulse; the transition of psychology into the field of the natural sciences.
10
Q
Sir Charles Sherrington first inferred the existence of __. Which conclusion of his is false?
A
synapses; he thought that synaptic transmission was electrical, but it is chemical
11
Q
Name and define the 3 kinds of nerve cells in the NS
A
1) Sensory (afferent) - transmit sensory info from receptors to spinal cord
2) Motor (efferent) - transmit info from brain and spinal cord to muscles
3) Interneurons - located predominantly in the brain and spinal cord and are linked to reflective behaviour
12
Q
Interneurons are the most __ of the 3 types of neurons, and they are found…
A
numerous; between other neurons
13
Q
Behaviour that is critical to survival is controlled by __
A
reflexes
14
Q
What happens in the reflex arc when receptors in the foot detect pain?
A
- pain signal transmitted by sensory neurons up to spinal cord. As soon as the impulses arrive at spinal cord, interneurons immediately transmit that info to motor neurons. Without wasting any time, the motor neurons immediately tell your foot to step away from the nail. The original sensory info still makes it’s way to the brain, but by the time it gets there, the muscles have already responded to the pain, thanks to the reflex arc.
- Reminder that functionalists (e.g., Dewey) criticized the breaking down of the reflex processes into separate stimuli and responses, as they preferred to study the process as a whole.
15
Q
The CNS is made up of:
The PNS is made up of:
A
- the brain and spinal cord
- nerve tissue and fibres outside of the brain and spinal cord (i.e., the PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body)
16
Q
The PNS is subdivided into the
A
somatic and autonomic nervous systems
17
Q
The somatic NS consists of __ and __ __ distributed throughout the __ and __
A
sensory; motor neurons; skin and muscles
18
Q
- Sensory impulses travel along __ __, which __ to the __
- Motor impulses travel along __ __, which __ the __ and __ __ on their way down to the __
A
- afferent fibers; ascend; brain
- efferent fibers; exit; brain; spinal cord; muscles
19
Q
The GRE psych tests tends to ask alot about the autonomic NS. Pioneering work on the ANS was done by __ __
A
Walter Canon
20
Q
The ANS generally regulates
A
heartbeat, respiration, digestion and glandular secretions, body temperature (by activating sweating or shivering). In other words, it manages the involuntary functions associated with many internal organs and glands.
Autonomic = regulates automatic bodily functions
21
Q
The ANS has two subdivisions:
A
1) sympathetic NS
2) parasympathetic NS
- They are antagonistic of each other. For example, the SNS acts to accelerate HR and decrease digestion, while the PNS does the opposite
22
Q
- The main role of the PNS is to __ __.
- The PNS is associated with __ and __ states, and acts to…
- The PNS also manages __, and promotes __ and __
- Which neurotransmitter is responsible for the parasympathetic responses in the body?
A
- conserve energy
- resting and sleeping; reduce HR and respiration rates
- digestion; resting and digesting
- acetylcholine
23
Q
- The SNS is activated whenever you face __ __
- The SNS is associated with __ and __ reactions, also known as…
A
- stressful situations, which can include everything from a mild stressor (e..g, schoolwork) to life and death
- fear and rage; fight or flight responses
24
Q
What is the order of physiological responses associated with a fight or flight reaction?
A
1) When the SNS is activated, body mobilizes to fight for one’s life or run for one’s life
2) There are increases HR, blood sugar level and respiration
3) Pupils dilate in order to increase the amount of visual info reaching the retina
4) the NT adrenaline is released into bloodstream
25
The human brain can be divided into 3 basic subdivisions. Name them and their general functions.
1) hindbrain - balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion and general arousal processes such as sleeping and waking. In short, it manages the functions necessary for survival
2) midbrain - received sensory and motor information
3) forebrain - linked to complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioural processes. Among it's other functions, it is associated with emotion and memory; it is the forebrain that has the greatest influence on human behaviour.
26
- The meaningful connection between brain location and functional complexity is no accident. In evolutionary terms, the __ and __ were the first structures to develop, and together they form the __.
- The next brain region to evolve was the __ __, which is a group of..
- The most recent evolutionary development of the human brain is the __ __, which is the..., and is associated with
- hindbrain and midbrain form the brainstem
- limbic system; neural structures primarily linked to emotion and memory.
- cerebral cortex; outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres; everything from language processing to problem solving, and from impulse control to long-term planning.
27
The term for evolutionary development is
phylogeny
28
- The hindbrain brain contains the __ __, a lower brain structure that is responsible for..
- The __ lies above the medulla and contains __ and __ __ between the __ and the __
- At the top of the hindbrain, mushrooming out of the pons is the __, which helps to...
- The __ __ extends from the hindbrain to the midbrain and is composed of a number of interconnected __. It primarily regulates..
- medulla oblongata; vital functions (breathing, digestion, heart beat, BP)
- pons; sensory and motor tracts; cortex and medulla
- cerebellum; maintain posture and balance and coordinate body movement
- reticular formation; nuclei; arousal and alertness (sleeping and waking)
29
Anesthetics cause unconsciousness partly by...
depressing the activity of the reticular formation
30
The reticular formation is associated with __, __, and __.
arousal, alertness and attention (3 As - way to remember for exam)
31
- The midbrain is associated with __ __ responses triggered by __ or __ stimuli.
- There are several prominent __ in the midbrain, two of which are collectively called __.
- The __ __ receives __ sensory input.
- The __ __ receives __ sensory input.
- involuntary reflex; visual or auditory
- nuclei; colliculi
- superior colliculus; visual (s = superior = seeing)
- inferior colliculus; auditory
32
The inferior colliculus has a role in reflexive reactions to __ __
sudden noises
33
- The forebrain is above the midbrain and is divided into two __ __
- The __ is a structure within the forebrain that serves as a __ station for incoming __ __, including which senses?
- After receiving sensory info, the thalamus does what?
- The hypothalamus is subdivided into the __ __, __ __, and __ __, serves __ functions and is a key player in __ experience during __ __ states, __ behaviour and __ behaviour
- The hypothalamus also helps control some __ functions, as well as the __ __ __.
- cerebral hemispheres
- thalamus; relay; sensory information; all senses except smell
- sorts the information and then transmits it to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex
- lateral hypothalamus, ventromedial hypothalamus, anterior hypothalamus; homeostatic; emotional; high arousal; aggressive; sexual
- endocrine (hormone), autonomic nervous system
34
The hypothalamus serves many homeostatic functions,. Receptors in the hypothalamus regulate __, __ and __ __. When any of these functions are out of balance, the hypothalamus...
- The hypothalamus is important in _ behaviours, such as...
metabolism, temperature, water balance; detects the problem and signals the body to correct the imbalance.
- drive; hunger, thirst, sexual behaviour
35
The maintenance of water balance in the body (___) is performed by __ in the __.
osmoregulation; osmoreceptors; hypothalamus
36
Who developed the concept of homeostasis?
Walter Cannon
37
- The __ __ is referred to as the hunger center because...
- When this part is destroyed in rats, they..
- What is aphagia?
- What is the trick to remember the link between the lat hyp and aphagia?
- What else does this part of the brain play a role in?
- lateral hypothalamus; it has special receptors though to detect when your body needs more food/fluids
- refuse to eat or drink and would starve to death
- the refusal to eat or drink because you have no desire to do so (remember 'phagos' means 'eating'. The same root word appears in 'esophagus', the tube leading from the mouth to the stomach.
- LH = lacking hunger
- rage and fighting behaviours
38
- The __ __ is defined as the satiety center, and tells you when..
- Brain lesions in this area usually lead to what?
- A name for the disorder associated with these brain lesions is?
- What is the trick to remember the connection between this brain structure and the disorder it causes?
- ventromedial hypothalamus; you've had enough to eat
- obesity
- hyperaphagia or excessive eating
- VH = very hungry
39
- The hypothalamus' job is to manage the...
| - How did researchers first discover the hypothalamus' role in rage and fighting?
- fight or flight responses associated with the SNS
- Through classic experiments conducted with cats. When researchers removed that cat's cortex but left the hypothalamus in place, the cat displayed pseudo-aggressive behaviour that was called "sham rage" - lashing of the tail, arching of the back, clawing and biting - except that rage was spontaneous or triggered by the mildest touch. These animals displayed randomr rage that was not necessarily directed at the provocation (as it is in normal rage responses). The researchers concluded that the cortex typically inhibits this type of response.
40
- What happened when researchers removed the cortex and hypothalamus of cats?
- So, without the cerebral cortex, animals have little or no control over...
- Without the hypothalamus, animals seem seem to lack the ability to...
- without both the cortex and the hypothalamus, the cats lacked the...
- The cat no longer showed any signs of sham rage, and much rougher stimulation was required before the cats showed defensive behaviour.
- their defensive and agressive behaviour
- defend themselves against threats to survival
- ability to coordinate and organize emotional responses
41
- Electrical stimulation of the anterior hypothalamus causes...
- In many species, damage to the ant hyp causes..
- damage to the Anterior hypothalamus leads to..
- an increase in aggressive sexual behaviour (mounting just about anything, including objects)
- permanent inhibition of sexual activity
- Asexual behaviour - emphasis in the A's
42
A useful way to remember the hypothalamus' function is to think of the 4 f's
- feeding, fighting, fleeing and sexual functioning
43
- In the middle of the brain is a group of structures called the basal ganglia, which __ __ __ as it receives information from the __ and relays this information via the ___ motor system to the __ and __ __.
- coordinates muscle movement, cortex, extrapyramidal; brain; spinal cord
44
The extrapyrimidal motor system does what?
gather info about body position (from areas such as the basal ganglia) and carries this information to the brain and spinal cord. Basically, it helps to make our movements smooth and our posture steady.
45
- A chronic disease associated with the basal ganglia is __ __, characterized by...
- The basal ganglia may also play a role in __
- Parkinson's disease; jerky movements and uncontrolled resting tremors
- Schizophrenia
46
- The ventricles are __ __ __ in the middle of the __ that link up with the __ __ that runs down the middle of the __ __.
- The ventricles and the spinal canal are both filled with?
- Researchers have linked abnormally enlarged ventricles with a pattern of symptoms often seen in schizophrenia, which are...
- fluid filled cavities; brain; spinal canal; spinal cord
- cerebrospinal fluid
- social withdrawal, flat affect and catatonic states
47
The limbic system comprises a..., and is primarily associated with __ and __.
- The primary components of the limbic system are:
- Phylogenetically, the limbic system was the __ major area of the brain to evolve; it lies in the __ __ of the __ __.
- group of interconnected structures looping around the central portion of the brain; emotion and memory
- septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, although the system also includes portions of the hypothalamus and cortex
- second; oldest part; cerebral hemispheres
48
- The septal nuclei form one of the primary __ centers in the brain.
- Mild stimulation of the septal nuclei is reported to be intensely __ and __ __.
- Who discovered this phenomenon in the 1950s?
- How did they discover this? (the experiment)
- The septal nuclei also __ __; damage leads to behaviour called __ __.
- pleasure (think septal sounds like sexual)
- pleasurable and sexually arousing
- James Olds and Peter Milner
- They found that when rats could stimulate their septal nuclei at will, the rats found it so pleasurable that they preferred it to eating, even after going 24 hours without food
- inhibits aggression; septal rage
49
- The amygdala plays a role in __ and __ behaviours; it has a __ effect on behaviour
- When the amygdala is damaged, __ and __ behaviours are __ __.
- Lesions to the amygdala result in __ and __ states
- Heinrick __ and Paul __ performed studies that linked...
- These researchers identified changes in animals that resulted from bilateral removal of the amygdala as __ __.
- defensive and agressive; dual
- agression and fear; markedly reduced
- docility; hypersexual
- Kluver, Bucy; the amygdala with defensive and agressive behaviour in monkeys.
- Kluver-Bucy Syndrome
50
- The __ plays a role in learning and memory processes.
- Researchers discovered this connection the hard way, with patient H.M. Which parts were removed and why?
- After surgery, H.M's intelligence was in tact, but he suffered a drastic and irreversible loss of __ for __ __.
- This kind of memory loss is called __ __, and is characterized by...whereas memory for __ __ is usually intact.
- Hippocampus
- Parts of the temporal lobes - including the amygdala and hippocampus - were removed from H.M. in order to control epileptic seizures.
- memory for anything new
- anterograde amnesia; not being able to establish new long term memories, distant events
51
Retrograde amnesia
memory loss of events that happened before the brain injury
52
Brenda __ describes HM's memory problems in detail
Milner
53
- The outer surface of the brain is called the __ __
- The cortex has numerous bumps and folds called __
- The convoluted structure of the brain provided increased __ __.
- The cortex has two halves (cerebral hemispheres), and is divided into 4 lobes:
- cerebral cortex (neocortex) (cortex means 'bark)
- convolutions
- cellular mass
- frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal
54
- The frontal lobe is comprised of two basic regions:
- The prefrontal cortex serves an __ function, in which is __ and __ the operations of other brain regions
- The frontal lobe supervises processes associated with __, __, __, __ __, and __.
- the prefrontal lobes and the motor cortex
- executive; supervises and directs
- perception, memory, emotion, impulse control and long-term planning
55
- It is important to understand HOW the prefrontal cortex manages these various cognitive and behavioural processes. In memory for example, what is the role of it?
- To regulate attention and alertness, the prefrontal cortex communicated with the __ __ in your brainstem, telling you to either wake up or relax, depending on the situation.
- Not to store memories, but to remind you that you have something to remember
- reticular formation
56
- What is an association area?
- What is a projection area?
- What are some examples of projection areas?
- An area that combines input from diverse brain areas. For example, multiple inputs may be necessary to solve a complex puzzle, to plan for future, etc.
- An area that receives incoming information or sends out motor-impulse commands.
- The visual cortex, which receives visual input from retina. Also the motor cortex, which sends out motor commands to muscles
57
- In humans, the amount of cortex devoted to association areas is substantially __ than that devoted to projection areas.
- larger - in other mammals however, projection areas are usually larger
58
In the 1950's __ __ were used to treat schizophrenia. This would consist of...
prefrontal lobotomies; inderting a scalpel through a hole in skull to to disconnect frontal lobe from limbic system and hypothalamus, both of which are associated with mood and emotion.
59
- The motor cortex initiates __ __ by sending neural impulses where?
- Starting at the top of the motor cortex, motor neurons are connected to the..
- As you move down the motor cortex, you find an orderly...
- Because certain sets of muscles require more motor control than others they...
- voluntary movements; down the spinal cord to the muscles
- toes of the opposite foot.
- sequence of cells corresponding to the foot, then the leg, the torso, the hand, the face, etc.
- take up more space in the motor cortex than you would expect based on their relative size within the body.
60
Broca's area is important for __ __ and is found where in the brain?
speech production; in the 'dominant' hemisphere', which is the left hemisphere for most people
61
- The parietal lobe is located at the __ of the frontal lobe, and is involved with ___ information processing.
- This projection area (parietal lobe) is the destination for...
- The somatosensory cortex and the motor cortex are so interrelated they are sometimes described as a single unit:
- The central region of the parietal lobe is associated with __ __ and manipulation. This region makes it possible for you to..
- rear, somatosensory
- all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature and pain.
- the sensorimotor cortex
- spatial processing; orient yourself in 3D space, to do spatial manipulation of block designs, and to apply spatial-orientation skills required for map reading.
62
- Occipital lobe located at rear of brain and is sometimes called the __ cortex.
- striate (means furrowed or striped, which is how the visual cortex looks under a microscope)
63
- Temporal lobes are associated with a number of functions. Wernike's area is associated with __ __ and __.
- In addition to the auditory cortex, the temporal lobe also serves in ...(3)
- Studies have shown that electrical stimulation of the temporal lobe can evoke...
- Why does the above fact make sense?
- Important to note that the lobes are not independent. Often a sensory modality may be represented in more than one area.
- language reception and comprehension (enables us to understand spoken language)
- memory processing, emotional control and language
- memories for past events
- because the hippocampus (the brain structure most associated with memory) is located inside the temporal lobe.
64
- In most cases, one side of the brain communicates with the other, which is called __
- For example, motor neurons on the left side of brain activate movements on the right side of the body. In other cases, such as __, cerebral hemispheres communicate with the same side of the body, which is called ___
- It is estimated that the left hemisphere is dominant in __% of population
- contralatterally
- smell; ipsilaterally
- 97%
65
- The dominant hemisphere (usually the left) is primarily __ in function, making it well suited for managing __.
- For instance, __, __, and __ skills are usually located in the dominant hemisphere
- Language production (broca's area) and language comprehension (wernike's area) entail speaking and understanding all the specific words and meanings that make up language, clearly a very detail oriented task.
- analytic, details
| - language, logic, math skills
66
- Many behaviours involve control of both hemispheres, whereas language is typically controlled by only one hemisphere, Broca's and Wernike's areas are both located in the __ hemisphere.
- Broca's area has been determined as the __ center of the brain, controlling the __ necessary for __ __.
- Wernike's area is the __ center for both spoken and written language, receiving input from...
- dominant
- articulation; muscles; speech production
- comprehension; the auditory and visual cortexes
67
The non dominant hemisphere serves a less prominent role in __. It is more sensitive to the....., and permits us to ...
- The dominant hemisphere thus screens incoming __ to...., and the non-dominant hemisphere ___ it according to it's __ __.
- The non-dominant hemisphere is also associated with __ and creativity, and __ and __ processing.
- In order to remember spatial processing, think...
- language; emotional tone of spoken language; recognize whether people are happy, depressed or anxious just by the sound of their voice.
- incoming language; analyze it's content; interprets; emotional tone
- intuition, music, spatial - which are all non-logical in nature
- spacious concert hall where you listen to music
68
- __ __ and __ __ studied the effects of severing the corpus callosum, by studying...
- Sperry was able to determine that the corpus callosum allows a...
- What happens in a 'split brain' patient?
- Associated split brain with __ and __
* ** LOOK AT STUDY CARD OF THIS HEMISPHERE STUFF ON PAGE 153**
- Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga; epileptic patients whose corpus callosum was severed in a last ditch effort to limit their seizures
- sharing of info between the two hemispheres in a coordinated fashion
- Once the corpus callosum has been severed, each hemisphere has its own function and specialization that is no longer accessible to the other.
- Sperry and Gazzaniga
69
All neurons have four basic parts:
1) cell body (soma)
2) dendrites
3) axon
4) terminal buttons
70
- The cell body contains the __ of the cell, making it the cell's __ __
- Dendrites __ __ from the __ __ to...
- External stimulation of the dendrites can lead a...
- The end of the axon branches out into numerous __ __, each containing...
- These transmitters are __ substances that the vesicles __ whenever the __ __, allowing...
- All of the above demonstrates that the nerve can transform...
- nucleus; energy center
- branch out; cell body; receive incoming info from other neurons via post synaptic receptors
- neuron to fire or generate an electrical impulse
- terminal buttons; tiny vesicles or sacs filled with neurotransmitters
- chemical; release; neuron fires; neurotransmitters to flow into the tiny space separating terminal buttons of one neuron from the dendrites of adjacent neurons (the synapse)
- chemical energy into electric energy and vice versa.
71
- All information passing between neurons via neurotransmitters must make it across...
- a tiny gap called the synapse
72
- What do glial cells do?
- The most important function of the glial cell is to...
- What is the purpose of the myelin sheath?
- Myelination also plays an important role in the...
- What allows an impulse to skip quickly down an axon?
- The __ conduction is faster than ordinary conduction along an unmyelinated axon.
- They support neurons by providing nutrients, oxygen, insulation and protection from patholgens
- insulate axons by enclosing them in a protective myelin sheath (not all axons are myelinated)
- to insulate nerve fibres from one another
- conduction velocity or speed of an impulse
- the nature of the myelin sheath, which is divided into myelinated and unmyelinated areas along the axon
- saltatory
73
- What are the 2 crucial differences between dendrites and axons?
- What are some other differences between the two?
- 1) Dendrites are not myelinated, while most axons are
2) Dendrites are typically receptors of information, whereas axons are generally the communication avenue of a nerve cell
- The branching pattern of dendrites can change significantly throughout a person's lifetime, while axons typically remain stable, even with aging; WHen damaged, dendrites can regenerate new branches and thereby replace neural connections that that might have otherwise been lost, whereas axons cannot regenerate, so the branching is fairly stable.
74
- Neural conduction WITHIN the neuron, including among the dendrites, cel body and axon is a __ process.
- Neural transmission between neurons is a __ process, that always occurs at the __
- electrical
| - chemical; synapse
75
- The resting potential is a...
- WHy is it called a resting potential?
- The cell membrane plays an important role in the resting potential and this potential is sometimes called...
- The cell membrane is a...
- The membrane is __, which means it's a partial __ that...
- slightly negative electrical charge stores inside the neuron's cell membrane - it is a charge waiting to be transformed into a nerve impulse
- because this energy potential is present when the neuron is at rest
- the membrane potential
- thin layer of fatter molecules that separates the inside of a neuron from the outside
- partial; barrier; allows some substances to pass through while blocking others
76
- To understand the process of neurotransmission we are most interested in small, electrically charged particles called __
- Like a kitchen sifter...
- Similarly, large electrically charged ions are...
- These ions can have what type of charge?
- MAny large ions trapped inside the cell have a _ charge
- When charged particles are separated, this is..
- The charge outside the neuron is more __ than inside, resulting in a...
- A neuron in the resting stage is said to be __
- ions
- small ions can pass through the cell membrane while larger ions are blocked
- too big to pass through the membrane, so they remain trapped where they are
- pos or neg
- negative
- the resting state of the neuron
- positive; net negative charge inside the neuron
- polarized
77
- To illustrate the dynamics of resting potential, describe the sodium potassium pump mechanism.
-- generally speaking, potassium ions are located inside the cell and sodium ions are outside the cell. The sodium ions move from outside the cell membrane to the inside and the potassium ions move from the inside of the cell to the outside. If nothing controlled the inward flow of sodium ions, these positively charged ions would balance out the negative charge built up on the inside of the cell membrane. without getting into the laws electricity, let’s just say that the inward flow of sodium ions would eventually cancel out the resting potential, meaning that there would be no stored of energy available to create a nerve impulse. To maintain the resting potential (slight negative charge inside the cell membrane), the cell membrane has to actively pump the positively charged sodium ions back outside, as well as keep the potassium ions inside the self. This is done by the sodium– potassium pump.
78
The complete firing of a neuron is a __ stage event which includes:
4; resting potential, depolarization, action potential spike, hyperpolarization
79
- The polarization associated with the resting potential is about __
- Depolarization occurs when.... which is typically about __mV
- The depolarization is the __ of the __
- Upon reaching this threshold...
- When does this pulse occur?
- How does this sudden reversal of the membrane's charge occur?
- What happens to the cell membrane during the third step of the action potential?
- What happens in the third stage?
- What happens in the last stage?
- -70millivolts
- a stimulus has been significant enough to cause the membrane's potential to increase to the threshold potential; -50mV
- firing; neuron
- the membrane produces a rapid electrical pulse, called an ACTION POTENTIAL SPIKE
- When the cell membrane's charge suddenly becomes positive (depolarization) for a fraction of a second
- After reaching its threshold, the membrane suddenly allows passage of sodium ions into the cell. Whereas before there was a partial barrier limiting the number or sodium ions entering the membrane, now there is nothing to stop the positively charged ions from rushing into the cell. The rush of positive charges into the cell changes the cell membrane from a negative to a positive charge.
- the cell membrane is repolarized
- cell membrane quickly switches back to negative charge by letting the positively charged ions leave the cell, more negatively charged ions are once again left inside the cell, and the negative charge is restored and the cell is repolarized
- Hyperpolarization - which occurs because the restoration of the membrane's negative charge happens so quickly that the membrane briefly overshoots its original negative charge from the resting potential.
80
- Once an action potential is triggered, the neuron can't ....
- During the above interval, the neuron is said to be in its __ __
- fire again until the action potential completes part of its firing cycle.
- refractory period
81
- A neuron's refractory period is divided into 2 stages. Name and define.
- ABsolute refractory period - the period corresponding to the depolarization (the inrush of sodium ions); this is the action potential, and during this period, the neuron is completely unresponsive to additional stimulation.
- Relative refractory period - corresponds to repolarization - and the cell becomes hyperpolarized, during which time a stronger stimulation is needed to reach threshold potential than when the cell is at normal resting potential.
82
- The action potential is governed by which law?
- the all or nothing law - When depolarization reaches the critical threshold (-50mV), the neuron is going to fire, every time. Once the action potential begins, the voltage always peaks at the same intensity, about +35mV, regardless of the intensity of the stimulus that triggered it
83
- The action potential originates where?
| - What happens here^?
- the axon hillock, a small elevation on a neuron where the axon meets the cell body.
- this is where the graded potential in the cell body is converted into the all or nothing potential of the axon. The acction potential is then transmitted as an electrical impulse along the axon towards the terminal buttons.
84
- The basic function of the myelin is to...
- What is a saltatory conduction?
- What are nodes of Ranvier?
- The action potential skips from...., which is..
- Why does the action potential not lose any intensity?
- insulate the axon and speed up conduction
- The effecient conduction along a myelinated axon
- gaps along the myelin sheath where the axon is uncovered (unmyelinated)
- node to node, which is faster than having a single impulse travel sequentially down the axon
- because the action potential regenerates at each node
85
- The terminal button is positioned close to but not actually touching the..
- The space in between the dendrite and terminal button is the __
- The membrane of the terminal button that faces the synapse is called the __ __, which contains..
- On the other side of the synapse, within the dendrite is the __ __ of an adjacent neuron that has __ on it.
- When an action potential releases NTs, these chemical substances go where?
- dendrite of an adjacent neuron
- synapse (synaptic cleft)
- presynaptic membrane; tiny sacs called vessicles, which store NTs
- postsynaptic membrane; receptors
- they flood into the synapse.
86
- What 3 things can happen to the NTs within the synapse?
1) they can attach themselves to receptor sites on post synaptic membrane
2) they can remain in the synapse, where they are destroyed and washed away by other biochemical substances
3) they can be drawn back into the vessicles of the terminal buttons via a process called REUPTAKE
87
- What is binding?
- When a NT fits a receptor site and attaches itself to it. NTs fit into receptor sites like keys into locks - if it doesn't fit, it doesn't attach
88
What happens after a NT binds to postsynaptic receptors?
it is eliminated from the synapse by reuptake or by being destroyed
89
Why does synaptic transmission receive considerable attention in scientific research?
because the synapse is where certain drugs act to change behaviour
90
- When a NT binds to the receptor site on the dendrite, it generates a..
- Depending on the NT and the receptor site, one of two things can happen:
- tiny electrical charge called a postsynaptic potential (PSP)
- 1) it can make the neuron more likely to fire (excitatory PSP - EPSP)
2) " "" less likely to fire (inhibitory PSP - IPSP)
91
- Postsynaptic potentials in dendrites are called __ potentials, which means.
- What does the above statement mean about the all or nothing law?
- In graded potentials, the voltage depends on..
- What is another difference between graded potentials and action potentials in terms of their voltage strength?
- graded; their voltage can vary in intensity
- it means that PSPs are not subject to the all or nothing law that characterizes the action potentials in axons
- how much the receptor sites are stimulated by the NTs (few NTs = weak, more NTs = stronger)
- Graded potentials spread out from the original site of stimulation and their voltage gradually weakens as they travel along the dendrites, whereas action potentials retain their strength as they travel along the axon.
92
- In order to understand the links between NTs and behaviour Eric __ studied __ __ __ in __, which are..
- He studied neural activity associated with...
- What did he find?
- What did he find in terms of NTs?
- Ultimately, he found that changes in __ __ underlie changes in __
- Kandel; simple neural networks; aplysia; sea snails with large, easily identifiable nerve cells.
- reflexes that govern the the movement of the aplysia's gills.
- He found that the sea snails would stop withdrawing their gills once they learned that the stimulation was harmless - they HABITUATED
- He found that, after habituation, the neurons governing the gill-withdrawal reflex released smaller amounts of NTs than before.
93
- Acetylcholine is a NT found in both the..
- In the PNS, acetylcholine is used to..
- In the CNS, acetylcholine has been linked to which illness?
- Why is the above illness linked to this NT?
- CNS and PNS
- transmit nerve impulses to the muscles
- alzheimers
- because it Alz is specifically associated with a loss of acetylcholine in the neurons that connect with the hippocampus, which is an important memory structure
94
- Epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine are three closely related NTs known as __.
- Due to their similar modelcular compositions, they are also known as __.
- catacholamines
| - monoamines or biogenic amines
95
- Norepinephrine, also known as __, is involved in controlling __ and __
- this NT is implicated in __ disorders, such as __ and __
- One theory holds what about too much or too little norep?
- alterness and wakefulness
- mood; depression; mania
- too much = mania, too little = depression
96
- Dopamine plays an important role in __ and __
- High concentrations of dopamine are usually found where in the brain?
- What is the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia?
- movement and posture
- basal ganglia
- suggests that delusions, hallucinations and agitation associated with schizo arise from either too much dopamine or an oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain
97
- The GRE book highlights two theories about the dopamine schizo hypothesis
- Amphetamines used over a long period of time can produce excessive dopamine activity that can result in amphetamine psychosis, which closely resembles paranoid schizo.
- Antipsychotic meds such as phenothiazines are thought to reduce the sensitivity to dopamine receptors. The less sensitive the receptors, the less likely the person is to experience schiz symptoms
98
- Parkinson's is thought to result from a loss of __-__ neurons in the __ __ (specifically, in the __ __)
- Disruptions of dopamine transmission leads to...
- What happens when ppl w schizophrenia are given antipsychotic meds over a long period of time?
- What is this ^ called?
- dopamine-sensitive; basal ganglia; substantia nigra, which is a part of the basal ganglia
- resting tremors and jerky hand movements
- they start to show side effects resembling the motor disturbances seen in parkinson's
- tardive dyskinesia
99
- How are motor disturbances in Parkinson's treated?
- How were they ineffectively treated in the past?
- What are the unwanted side effects of the parkinson's treatment?
- L-Dopa drug - increases dop level in brain
- oral doses of dopamine but this could not cross the blood-brain barrier, like L-dopa can
- Can lead to an oversupply of dopamine in brain which can produce psychotic symptoms in ppl with Parkinson's
100
- Serotonin is classified as a __, and plays roles in...
- Serotonin, like norepinephrine, is thought to play a role in..
- The concept above is what lead to the development of...
- What is the monoamine theory of depression?
- monoamine; regulating mood, eating, sleeping and arousal
- depression and mania - (too much = mania, too little = depression)
- selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
- the lumping together of the similarities between theories linking oversupply of norep or serotonin to mania and undersupply with depression
101
- GABA produces which kind of PSP?
- What role does GABA play?
- GABA exerts its effects by causing __ in the __ __
- inhibitory
- stabilizing the neural activity of the brain
- hyperpolarization; postsynaptic membrane
102
- Studies suggest that peptides, which are..., are also involved in __
- The synaptic action of neuromodulators (also called neuropeptides) involves a more complicated chain of events in the __ __ than that of __ __
- Compared to NTs, neuromodulators are relatively __ and have __ __ on the __ __ than NTs.
- Endorphins are natural __ __ in the brain, and are the most important __ to know about
- The __ and __ are very similar in structure to morphine and other opiates
- two amino acids joined together; neurotransmission
- postsynaptic cell; regular neurotransmitters
- slow; longer effects; postsynaptic cell
- pain killers, peptides
- endorphines, enkephalins
103
- Sedative hypnotics drugs act to..
- Alcohol is another common sedative. Sometimes alchoholics suffer from __ syndrome, which...
- One of the major symptoms of the above syndrome is __ __
- How does the above syndrome develop?
- slow down functioning of CNS
- Korsakoff's; produces serious disturbances in memory.
- anterograde amnesia (loss of memory for anything new)
- Not due to drinking too much, but rather, it is traced to a vitamin deficiency in thiamin (vit B1), which arises from the malnutrition that often occurs in chronic alcoholics
104
- Behavioural stimulants stimulate which NT receptors?
- Tricyclic antidepressants are thought to reduce depression by facilitating the...
- Why are they called tricyclics?
- Tricyclics block the reuptake of __
- Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOs) do what?
- Prozac is an SSRI that inhibits the..
- Lithium is effective mood stabilizer in eliminating __ % percent of symptoms assoc with bipolar
- Lithium prevents __ __ and is extremely effective in controlling acute __ __
- dopamine, norep, serotonin
- transmission of norep or serotonin at the synapse
- because of their chemical structure
- monoamines
- inhibit the action of an enzyme called MAO, which normally breaks down and deactivates norep and serotonin in the synapse. By suppressing the action of this enzyme, MAO inhibitors increase the supply of norep and serotonin.
- reuptake of serotonin in the synapse
- 70-90%
- mood swings; manic symptoms
105
- Many narcotics bind directly to the __ receptors in the brain
- Narcotics are among the most effective __ __ drugs available
- Psychedelics are a __ class of drugs
- Review page 164 for NTs effected by drugs
- opiate
- pain relieving
- mixed
106
- The endocrine system uses chemical messages called __, and is somewhat __ compared to the nervous system, because...
- The endocrine system is involved in __ and __ body processes
- Does the endocrine system ever respond quickly? If so, when?
- Epinephrine is unique because it can act as...
- The endocrine system also regulates __ arousal and other functions associated with sexual __
- hormones; slower; hormones travel to their target destination via the blood stream
- slow; continuous (e.g., thyroid hormones regulate general body growth)
- Yes, when we face life threatening situations, by producing adrenaline (epinephrine), which increases the energy available for fight or flight.
- a NT and a hormone
- sexual; reproduction
107
- The endocrine system shares many characteristics with the __ (remember the 4 f's?)
- The hypothalamus works directly with the __ gland
- The pituitary gland, located at the __ of the brain, is divided into 2 parts:
- Which part of the pituitary gland is the master gland?
- What part of the brain controls the pit gland?
- The pituitary gland secretes various __ via the __ that...
- hypothalamus (feeding, fighting, fleeing, sexual functioning)
- pituitary gland
- base; anterior and posterior
- the anterior, since it releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands.
- hypothalamus
- hormones; bloodstream, travel to other endocrine glands located elsewhere in the body to activate them. This chemical messenger then signals a specific internal organ (e.g, heart, liver) to change its functioning.
108
- Hormones that are regulated by the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary also play a role in initiating, maintaining, and halting the development of ...
- primary and secondary sex characteristics
109
- What are primary sex characteristics?
| - - What are secondary sex characteristics?
- present at birth (sex organs, or gonads (ovaries or testes), and external genitalia)
- Do not appear until puberty (F = enlarged breasts, widened hips; M = facial hair, deeper voices
110
- What are the two kinds of chromosomes?
- At birth, the embryo always receives an...
- Which chromosomes does the fetus need to inherit in order to me male, female?
- X, Y
- X from the mother, but may received either an X or Y from the father
- Male: X, Y; Female: XX
111
- Male development requires the presence of hormones called __, during __ stages of fetal development
- Androgens refer to male __, and the most important one to remember is __
- Just after conception, the __ __ initiates the production of androgens
- What happens if the fetus does not or cannot produce androgens?
- Anatomic development of a female fetus does not need __ __, but merely the...
- androgens; critical
- hormones; testosterone
- Y chromosome
- Development will follow the female pattern, regardless of chromosomal genetic sex, and this rare phenomenon is called ANDROGEN-INSENSITIVITY SYNDROME
- female hormones; absence of androgens
112
- During puberty, the pituitary gland produces and releases __ __, which are also called __
- The above chemical messengers do what?
- In males, these chemical messengers do what?
- In females, these chemical messengers do what?
- gonadotropic hormones (gonadotropins)
- activate a dramatic increase in the production of hormones by the testes or ovaries
- stimulate testes to produce sperm, stimulate a surge in testosterone levels which leads to development and maintenance of secondary sex characteristics (deep voice, facial hair)
- stimulate ovaries to release estrogen which accelerates the development of female genitalia and has a role in the menstrual cycle
113
- Hormones also play a role in the female reproductive cycle. First, the pit gland does what?
- __ hormone is associated with ovulation, which is the..
- At various stages throughout the menstrual cycle, the ovaries manufacture and secrete two hormones: (1) __ and (2)__
- secretes a hormone called FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH), which stimulates the growth of an ovarian follicle, which is a small, protective sphere surrounding the egg or ovum.
- Luteinizing; release of an egg from one of the ovaries
- (1) estrogen = increasing levels of estrogen are associated with the maturation and release of the egg or ovum from the ovrary.
- (2)progesterone - function is to prepare the uterus for implantation of the fertilized egg (think pro-gestation - promotes pregnancy/gestation
114
- If an ovum if fertilized, what happens?
| - What if it isn't fertilized?
- The ovum begins to divide and will soon attach itself to uterine wall
- estrogen and progesterone levels soon decrease, at which point, menstruation begins
115
- One method used to study the relationship between brain and behaviours is to study __ __ in lab animals. The advantage of this approach is that...
- In addition to ablation (extirpation), researchers might also produce lesions by...
- The device used to locate brain areas when electrodes are implanted to make lesions or to stimulate nerve cell activity is called a __ __
- Another method involved electrically stimulating and recording brain activity, and this approach was developed by __ __
- Hubel and Weisel also did what?
- brain lesions; precisely defined brain legions can be created
- inserting tiny electrodes inside of the brain and then selectively applying intense heat, cold or electricity to specific brain regions
- stereotaxic instrument
- Wilder Penfield (page 169) - if electrode stimulates visual cortex, patient sees flashes of light
- Single cell recording
116
- Electrodes can enable researchers to record electrical activity generated by large numbers of neurons. One teechnique invilves placing several electrodes on the surface of the head. Broad patterns of electricity can thus be detected an recorded using an __, which produces a __
- Research on what typically uses the above technique?
- electroencephalograph, electroencephalogram (EEG)
| - sleep
117
- What is regional cerebral blood flow technique (rCBF)?
- How is this measured?
- This research method uses noninvasive __ __ devices to generate pics of the brain
- noninvasive procedure which detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to certain parts of the brain.
- a special device that can detect radioativity in the bloodstream (after person inhales a harmless gas) records increased cerebral blood flow
- computerized scanning (CAT, PET, MRIs)
118
- The most important person to associate with the study of neuropsychological disorders is
- Agnosia affects __ __
- In visual agnosia, there is an impairment in __ __'
- Note that visual perception and recognition are __ processes that occur..
- Visual perception is registered in the __ area of the __ __,
- Visual recognition is registered in nearby __ __
- Thus damage to the cortical area results in visual agnosia, without interferring with sight.
- agNOsia (not KNOWing)
- A. R. Luria (russian neurologist)
- perceptual recognition
- visual RECOGNITION (that is, although a person can see an object, they don't recognize what it is)
- separate; in separate areas of the visual cortex
- projection; visual cortex
- association areas
119
- Apraxia is an impairment in the...
- Apraxia is characterized by the inability to...
- Lighting a cigarette example -
- In apraxia, where does the problem seem to stem from in the body?
- AprAXia (inability to ACT-ia)
- organization of motor action
- execute a simple motor response from a verbal command
- Person may strike match over and over again, as they have problems executing the step-by-step sequence entailed in everyday acts
- Not from the projection areas in the motor cortex light you might expect, but rather, from damage to nearby association areas which organize simple movements into predictable, voluntary acts.
120
- Neurocognitive disorders are neurological disorders characterized by a...
- What are two main diffs between huntington's and parkinson's compared to Alzheimer's?
- loss in intellectual functioning
| - Cognitive deficits occur much more slowly and are less severe. However, the motor deficits are quite severe.
121
- List the sleep stages and the length of a complete sleep cycle
- beta, alpha, theta, delta, REM - 90minutes
| - acronym to remember = BAT-D (bats sleep in day)
122
- Beta and alpha waves characterize the brain wave activity when we are __
- Beta waves have a __ frequency and occur when a person is...
- Beta waves occur when neurons are __ __
- Alpha waves occur when we are..
- Alpha waves are somewhat __ and are more __ compared to beta waves
- awake
- high; attending to a mental task that requires high concentration (beta - rearrange to beat - beta waves beat all others)
- randomly firing
- awake but relaxing with our eyes closed
- slower;sychronized
123
- As soon as you doze off you enter sleep stage 1, which is detected on the EEG by...
- In stage 1, EEG activity is characterized by...
- In stage 2, the EEG shows __ waves and becomes progressively _, and _ _ occur
- In stage 3, EEG activity becomes progressively slower until...
- In stage 4, the delta waveform reaches its __ rate and __ __ are at their steepest. Difficult to wake someone up from this stage.
- the appearance of sleep spindles, which are short bursts of alpha waves.
- slower frequencies, irregular and jagged waves, and beginning increases in size or voltage of waves
- theta; slower and k complexes occur
- only a few waves per second are seen - these low frequency, high voltage sleep waves are called delta waves (delta = deep sleep)
- slowest; sleep spindles
124
- We spend proportionally more time in __ __ __ as infants than another other time in life.
- What are some other names for this^?
- Why is REM sleep paradoxical?
- When do sleep phenomena (e.g. night terrors, sleepwalking) typically occur?
- What is REM rebound?
- rapid eye movement
- desynchronized sleep, paradoxical sleep
- because its EEG brain waves look alot like beta brain waves (although they are desynchronized), but our muscle tone remains relaxed.
- during non-REM sleep
- A phenomenon that happens to people who have been deprived of REM sleep, who are then allowed to sleep without being disturbed. They compensate for this loss of REM sleep by spending more time than usual in REM sleep.
125
- Insomnia
- Narcolepsy
- Sleep apnea
- disturbance effecting ability to fall asleep and/or stay asleep
- lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep (sudden, brief, periods of sleep)
- inability to breathe during sleep, sometimes for more than a minute, and often awaken during the night in order to breathe
126
- What is the James-Lange Theory of emotion?
- Jame's wrote that we feel...
- This theory emphasized the role of the __ __ __
- States that we become aware of our emotion after we notice our physiological reactions to some external event.
- "sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble"
- peripheral nervous system
127
- The Cannon-Bard theory of emotional awareness suggests that...
- This theory postulates that __ __ and __ __ occur simultaneously
- Unlike the James-Lange Theory, this theory gives the brain a more..
- Cannon discovered what about the SNS?
- Cannon and Bard argued that the subjective experience of emotion must affect...
- Regardless of which neural circuits are activated, Cannon and Bard argue that emotional responses must also include..
- the awareness of emotions reflects our physiological arousal and our cognitive experience of emotion.
- body changes; emotional feelings
- central role in the subjective experience of emotion.
- That any stimulation of the SNS (part of the PNS), essentially produced the same physiological response: increased HR, respiration, trembling, etc.
- specific neural circuits in the brain, and that different circuits probably correspond to different emotions (e.g., one brain circuit might correspond to sadness, and another to euphoria)
- simultaneous physiological arousal of the SNS
128
- Who proposed the two-factor theory of emotion?
- What did this theory propose?
- In the absence of any clear emotion-provoking stimuli, interpretation of physiological arousal depends on...
- Stanley Schacter and J.E Singer
- The subjective experience of emotion is based on the interaction between changes in physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal.
- what is happening in the environment around us. In other words, in some situations, a person will label physiological arousal as anger, and in other situations, the same arousal will be interpreted as euphoria. Thus, an individual's appraisal of the situation determines the interpretation.
129
What happened in Schacter and Singer's famous experiment?
They injected participants with adrenaline, but half were told it was a vitamin injection. Each subject was then asked to wait in a room with a confederate, who acted silly and played with airplanes. The subjects who were not told of the effects of the adrenaline injection reported feeling euphoria, while those who were told to expect arousal (due to the drug) did not feel euphoria.
Bascially, once the physiological arousal was induced by the adrenaline, he subjects would label their emotions based on the info they had available. This info includes both past experiences and current environmental cues.
