Physiology Flashcards
(118 cards)
1
Q
levels of organisation in the body
A
cells, tissue, organ, organ system, body
2
Q
how many pairs of chromosomes in a normal cell and what is the last pair
A
23 pairs last pair is sex chromosomes either xx or xy
3
Q
what is karyographs
A
seeing chromosomes for gender or if they are missing any or have too many.
it is done by amniocentesis(needle of amniotic fluid) then centrifuged and micro scoped
4
Q
what trisinamy 21 and features
A
extra chromosome (downsyndrome) of 21st chromosome
single horizontal palm crease
flattened facial features
macroglossia( big tongue)
hole in septum of heart
5
Q
features of trisynamy 13
A
cleft pallet
missing eye
incomplete brain development
6
Q
different organelles and their jobs
A
nucleus- holds DNA
SER- lipid production
RER- protien production
Ribosomes- Protien synthesis
Golgi- packages proteins and lysosomes
vecicles- transport vessels
Mitochondria- respiration
plasma membrane- partially permiable
7
Q
features of plasma membrane
A
phospholipid bilayer
cholestrol thats glue
protien channels
receptors for cell signalling
transmembrane protiens
8
Q
what is simple diffusion
A
diffusion from high to low across semi permiable membrane
9
Q
facilitated diffussion
A
diffusion from high to low across a membrane aided by a carrier
10
Q
what is osmosis
A
movmenet of water scross a semi permeable membrane from high to low water potentisal
11
Q
what is isotonic hyper and hypotonic
A
isotonic same concentration
hypertonic-greater concentration dehydration- cells are hypertonic of water so the water moves out
hypotonic- lesser concentration
water intoxication cells are hypotonic of water so water moves in
12
Q
what is homeostasis
A
bodies ability to remain relitvley stable
13
Q
what is negative feedback and examples
A
when body moves out of normal range response is stopped to bring it back to normal eg blood glucose and heart rate
14
Q
requirments for negative feedback
A
stimulus> sensor to detect stimulus> control centre to decide what to do> effector(response)
15
Q
sodium homepstasis
A
aldosterone is released when sodium falls bellow normal value hypotraenimea which promotes reabsorbtion to kidneys
hypertraenemia- aldosterone stops
16
Q
potassium homeostasis
A
aldosterone is released when potassium levels are too high hyperkaelimia and the kidneys eliminate it
hypokaelemia- aldosterone is inhibited
17
Q
what is positive feedback- example
A
deviation from norm is amplified eg oxytocin in childbirth
18
Q
parts of the kidney system
A
kidney- produces urine
ureter- carries urine away
urinary bladder- holds urine
urethra- allows urine to leave bladder
19
Q
kidney anatomy
A
hillium- indentation in kidney for renal nerves and veins
kidney pelvis- urines way out
cortex- outer part
medulla inner part
nephron- site of filtration
19
Q
composition of urine
A
95% water 5% toxins and nitrogenous waste like urea
19
Q
kidneys function
A
excretion, filter blood, remove excess water ions and urea, involved in blood homeostasis
produce epo which synthesises erythrocytes
produce renin which increases blood pressure, allows vasoconstriction
20
Q
nephron anatomy
A
glomeroulus>pct>loop of henle>Dct
21
Q
stages of urine formation
A
glomerular filteration- small molecules like water are filtered
tubular reabsorbtion- water is retained in pct lh and dct
secretion- ammonium excess water and ions can be actively secreted into urine.
22
Q
what is haemodyalisis
A
connected to a dialysis machine blood is filtered through a membrane in hospital
22
what is peritoneal dyalisis
like haemodyalisis but the membrane used is the peroneum membrane in the bodyand can be drained
22
what is dialysis
artificial filtration when the kidneys no longer work
23
what is adh
anti diuretic hormone is produced in hypothalamus- promotes aquaporines in collecting duct to reabsorb water
24
what is aldosterone
hormone produced in adrenal cortex causes sodium to be reabsorbed into the body causing increased blood pressure
25
what is ANH
atrial naturetic hormone- produced in atrias- causes sodium to not be absorbed and leaves in the urine- decreses blood pressure
26
functions of skeleton
support- movmemnt, protection, bloodcell production, calcium storage
27
organic and inorganic components of the bones
organic- protien collagen, which knits bone together
inorganic- calcium phosphate crystals for the hardness
28
what is osteogenisis imperfecia
and rickets
brittle bones- lack of collagen formed- genetic
rickets-lack of vitamin d which is needed to absorb the inorganic component
29
bone classification
long bones- movement bones, epiphysis- head softer, metaphysis- neck, diaphysis- shaft- hard bone
flat bones- protection
short bones- weight bearing
30
types of fractures
simple- contained within skin
compound- broken out of skin- can become infected
31
bone marrow
red- axial skeleton produces red blood cells
yellow- lipid storage
32
hormonal control of bone density
when blood calcium is high thyroids release calcitonin which make calcium attatch to bones
when blood calcium is low PTH stimulates calcium removal from the bones
33
three types of muscles and their features
skeletal- multinucleated, striated, voluantary, create movments
cardiac- uni/binucleated, light striation, involuantary, control heart beats
smooth- uninucleated, no striation, involuantary, move food and blood and empty the bladder.
34
type of mysium
epimysium- surrounds whole muscles
perimysium- surrounds groups of fibres
endomysium- surrounds individual fibres
35
what is the composition of 1 sarcomere
z line to z line
IAHAI- I is the light band
A band is the darkest band
H zone is the light band inbetween the A bands
A= myosin + actin
H myosin
I actin
36
how do muscles contract
ca binds to troponin which pull tropomyosin out of the way-
atp binds to myosin head to attatch it to actin binding sight
atp is hydrolysed and released causing myosin head to flex and move actin filament
atp binds again to return it to its natural postition
37
two types of nerve cells and functions
neurones- conduct messages b electrical and chemical messages
neuroglia- protect and support nurones and help with neurone growth
38
types of neuroglia
astrocytes- control toxins in the blood - blood brain barrier
microglia- macrophages
ependymal cells- cells that fill fluid cavities in brain to protect it
olygodendrocytes- mylin sheath in cns
satilite cells- surround neuron cell bodys and protect them
schwann cells mylin sheath in pns
39
what pain is caused by what nerves
chronic- unmylinated
sharp- mylinated
40
types of neurones
multipolar- motor
bipolar- relay
unipolar- sensory
41
parts of the brain
frontal lobe- thoughts
temporal lobe- hearing
occipital lobe- vision
cerebelum- basic
movments
brocas area - speech prod
werenkes area- understanding
basal ganglia- movment and emotion
hypothalamus- autonomic control
epithalamus- sleep wake
thalamus- processes info
brainstem- primal brain- basic needs
42
what is systolic vs diastolyic blood pressure
syst- blood pressure when the ventricles are contracting
diastole- blood pressure when the ventricles are relaxed
43
what is normal blood pressue and measurement
120/80 mmhg
44
what is hypertension, the reading and the types of hypertension and cause
140/90 or higher
essential/ primary hypertension- cause unknwn
secondary hypertension- caused by another medical condition like kidney disease
hypertensive crisis- 180/110 or higher- at risk of stroke
preeclampsia- pregnancy and associated with protienurea
45
pathologies associated with hypertension
hypertensive left ventricular hypertophy LVH- heart has to enlarge to pump high pressure blood
abdominal aortal anyrism- AAA- palapable puslatile mass can rupture which is fatal damaged area can be replaced
berry anurism- happens where cerbral vessel bificates- can lead to haemorage which is fatal
hypertensive kidney disease- high blood pressure damages glomerulus
hypertensive retinopathy- dots appear on photosensitive layer
atherosclerosis- macrophages trap lipid and foam up and harden narrowing the blood vessel more increasing blood pressure
45
hypotension, reading and what it can cause
90/60 or lower, can lead to falls fainting and shock
46
pathologies in hypotension
postural hypotension- standing up too quickly can lead to fainting
hypovolamic shock- loss of a fifth of blood caused by a wound, haemmorage, other causes of fluid loss like vomiting.
47
neural control of blood pressure
stretch receptors called baroreceptors in the carrotid and aorta- when blood pressure and stretch fall blood pressure rises
vasomotor centre- manages vaso dialation and constriction of blood vessels
47
hormonal control of blood pressure
adh- retains water volume making blood volume more increasing bp
atrial naturaitc peptide- opposes adh
adrenaline- increases heart rate which increases bp
RAAS system- cascade effect which forms aginotenin ii which raises blood pressure
48
what are the 12 cranial nerves and function
olefactory- smell
optic- vision
oculormotor- eye
movement
trochlear- eye movement
trigeminal- face sensation
abducens- eye lid
movement
facial- face movements
vestibularchoclear- hearing and balance
glossopharangeal- taste and swallowing
vagus- autonimic supply to heart and intestines
acessory- muscle innovation in neck
hypoglossal- tongue movements
49
composition of spinal nerves (levels in spine)
C8
T12
L5
S5
coccogeal 1
50
what does each region of the spine innovate
c- head neck arms diaphragm
t- chest and part of abdomen
l- lower back and parts of leg
s- buttocks, feet legs, anas + genitals, voluantary bowel and bladder function
51
classification of hormones
steroid hormones
non steriod hormones- polypeptide hormones and modified amino acid hormones
52
role of the hypothalamus+ location+ hormones released
base of the brain
signals pituitary gland to start/ stop hormone production
influences homeostasis like temp, thirst,sleep,hunger
Thyrotrophin releasing hormone- triggers TSH release to secrete thyroxin
GHR- stumulates growth hormone
53
location + role + hormones of pituitaty
base of brain
hormone production that controls other endocrine glands
anterior lobe:
ACTH- grows adrenal gland
FSH- controls menstural cycle
LH- controls menstural cycle
posterior lobe:
ADH- decrese urine volume
oxytocin- contraction in birth
54
location + role + hormones of pineal
deep centre of brain
controls sleep cycle
melatonin- sleep cycle
55
location + role + hormones of thyroid
located in neck
Thyroid hormone- regulates metabolism
Thyroid hormone- growth and development
Calcitonin- calcium deposition (calcium homeostasis)
56
location + role + hormones of parathyroid
4 glands on or near posterior thyroid
calcium homeostasis
PTH- raises calcium level by removing calcium from bone
57
location + role + hormones of thymus
inbetween lungs behind sternum
thymopoietin- supports immune system matures t lymphocytes
58
location + role + hormones of pancreas
posterior to stomach
regulates blood sugar levels
5 Cells-
alpha cells- glucagon, raises blood glucose levels
beta cells- insulin- decreases blood sugar levels
delta cells- somatostatin- regulates insulin and glucagon
gamma cells- pancreatic polypeptide- causes feeling full
epsilon cells- ghrelin- feeling of hunger
59
location + role + hormones of adrenal
above kidneys
adrenal cortex (outer)
- cortisol- key stress response
-aldosterone- reaborbtion of water an sodium
adrenal medulla
adrenalin + noradrenalin- prepares body for rapid response
60
location + role + hormones of ovaries
either side of uterus
oestrogen- develop reproductive organs
progesterone- prevents ovulation in pregnancy
61
location + role + hormones of testes
in the scrotum
produce sperm
testosterone- sexual behavior, stimulates pubic hair, increase metabolism
62
what is boyles law
as volume increase pressure decreases vice versa
63
what is the zone of apposition
where diaphragm makes direct contact with ribs allowing for proper movement and breathing
64
what is forced vital capacity
what is fev1
maximum air blown out as hard as possible
forced expitory reserve in 1 second
65
respitory disease patterns
obstructive- persistent slowing of airflow- copd or tumor
restrictive- expansion of lungs is limited interstitial pulmonary fibrosis and kyphoscoliosis
66
what do obstructive diseases involve
condition inside the lumen like oedema
condition in the wall of airways like bronchoconstriction
conditions in peribronchal region like a compression from a cyst
67
extra-pulmonary restrictions
skeltal- pectus excavatum, scoliosis
neuromuscular- upper or lower motor neuron, peripheral nerve, neuromuscular junction, muscle fibre
pleural- pleural effusion
other- obesity and pregnancy
68
how to find functional residual capacity
inward lung recoil compared to outwards chest recoil
69
what is idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
chronic progressive fibrosing interstitial pneumonia and lungs get stiffer
70
what is copd
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease so lung have to expand more leading to barrel chest
71
peripheral ns composition
sensory fibre mostly as well as motor fibres that send impulses from brain through the spinal cord to muscles
72
what is the sns
somatic nervous system or voluantary nervous system in the peripheral nervous system
73
what is the ans
autonomic nervous system which are involved in reflexes and automatic body functions
74
what is a pre or postganglionic neuron
pre- they connect to cns to transmit message to autonmoic nervous system
post- transmit signal from ganglia to target organs
75
what is the sympathetic nervous system
prepares the body to deal with stressful situations- originates at the hypothalamus to the medullal oblongata and to organs and tissues
76
structure of sympathetic division
spinal chord to sypthatetic trunk ganglia to viceral effectors
77
where are the pre ganglionic neurons in sypathetic nervouse sytem
lateral horn of grey matter
12 thoracic segments and first 2 lumbar
78
types of sympathetic ganglia
sympathetic trunk ganglia
pre vertabral ganglia- cleliac, superior and inferior messinetric, aortic, renal
79
what does sympathetic ns do
dialtes pupils, vasodialites to muscles, relaxes bladder, increases hr
80
what is the para sympathetic ns
slows down body processes other than digestion- rest and digest
81
what does the parasympathetic ns do
constricts pupils, vasodialation to digwstive system, bladder contracted
82
functions of the lymphatic system
tissue drainage- drains excess tissue fluid
fat transport-
trapping foreign materials- lymphnodes trap material and become tender and swolen- particularly cerviacel lymphnodes
83
mechanical defenses in the body
skin- epidermis is dead skin which is tough and keeps pathogens out
mucous membranes- openings like the mouth, and nose are lined with mucous membranes to trap pathogens
mucociliary escalator- trapped pathogens in mucous are swept up and out of airways by ciliated epithelial cells
84
chemical defences in the body
HCL- low pH- in the stomach, sterilising food and the trapped pathogens in the mucociliary escalator can also be swallowed into the stomach
Lysozymes- in most body fluids, an acid that attacks bacteria, is found high in sweat.
lactobacillus in female reproductive tract- bacteria that produce lactic acidmaking it difficult for other bacteria and yeast to live
Dysbiosis in FRT- disruption of lactobacillus- become more alkaline and becomes fungal infection called thrush
85
cellular defenses in the body (granulocytes)
Neutrophils- most common leukocyte, trap pathogens and can move out of blood vessels to site of infection
basophils- rare- produce heparin a natural anticoagulant to stop blood clots
Eosinophils- parasite destruction by releasing enzymes onto skin by protecting against worm infestations
86
cellular defence in the body (agranulocytes)
Monocytes- enter organs and tissues and mature and become macrophages which are found in interstitial space- macrophages are phagocytes
Lymphocytes- found in the lymph system mostly lymph nodes, they produce antibodies which act as markers to signal macrophages to destroy pathogens
87
the inflamatory response
signs- redness, swelling, heat, pain, loss of function
it is triggered by damage to body tissue to stop spread of infection
88
limiting the spread of infection in cuts
if we cut our skin pathogens can move in and spread rapidly. to stop the the body has mast cells which produce histamines which cause the inflammatory response and means neutrophils leave blood vessels killing bacteria at the site of the cut
89
cells in male reproductive system
spermatogonia- cells which produces sperm via meosis
sertoli cells- aid growth and development of sperm
interstitial cells- produce testosterone
90
whre are testes located and why
in scrotum away from body to keep cooler optimum temperature
they hang by cords known as spermatic cords which carry sperm away from testes
they can twist and cut of blood supply this is testicular torsion
91
what is mumps
virus that when going through puberty testes can become susceptible which could lead to infertility
92
glands in male reprodutive system
prostate seminal vesicles and bulbourethral glands all produces seminal fluid all found at the base of the bladder
93
signs of prostate cancer
difficulty passing urine and pain, elevated prostate-specific antigen in the blood
with age it also increases with age called benign prostatic hyperplasia- harmless but similar symptoms to cancer
94
effects of testosterone
anabolic effects- builds up tissue like muscle and maintains bone density
testosterone levels remain relatively high throughout a man's life but fall off at 60 which leads to less muscle and frailty
95
ovarian structure and formation of ova
ovaries are suspended by ligaments in pelvic cavity, germinal cells produces ova by meosis,
96
internal strucures of fallopian tubes
lined with ciliated epithelium which guides the ovum along the tubes fertilisation takes place at the distal end of the tube and then implants onto the uterus.
97
how can chlamydia affect fertility
it can affect the cilliated cells damaging them leading to infertility- it can also lead to eptopic pregnancies where fertilisation and growth of the baby occurs in the tube and could rupture it.
98
components of the uterus
endometrium- inner lining- where the embryo will implant, break down and shed during menstruation
myometrium- middle muscle later, mostly smooth muscles and propels baby along the birth canal
perimetrium- thin outer layer, secretes slippery watery fluid lubricant useful in pregnancy
99
the cervix
forms neck of uterus- ring of muscle between vagina and uterus
the cervix aperture is plugged with mucus which dissolves in the midpoint of menstrual cycle allowing sperm up
the cervix also dilates in birth
100
what is HPV
STD which leads to genital warts and certain strains can elicit cancer
cervical cancer precancerous is cervical dysplasia and is 100% curable
it then becomes malignant when it reaches cervix and uterus
it becomes metastatic when it spreads to lymph in surrounding area
101
phases of the ovarian cycle
follicular phase- days 1-14- fsh hormone- folicle enlarges and pressure increases greatly
ovulation- around day 14- LH- ovary walls rupture and expel ovum
luteal phase- day 14-28 generates progesterone- progesterone acts to maintain endometrial lining and if pregnancy occurs then progesterone keeps being produced if not then progesterone stops
102
phases of uterine cycle
menses day 1-5- the endometrial lining of the uterus breaks down and all the deepest part of the endometrium is shed
proliferative phase 6-14- endometrial lining rebuilds itself by oestrogen
secratory phase day 15-28- the endometrium prepares implantation of the embryo
103
common terms in menstrual cycle
amenorrhea- absence of menstrual cycle in child bearing years- eating disorders, stress
menopause- end of child bearing years around 51 years of age- oestrogen fall rapidly and oestrogen is key to bone density, risking more fractures and osteoporosis
104
regulation of the heart and what hppens at rest and exercise
SA node, - av node, bundle of his, purkinjie fibres
at rest parasypathetic vagus nerve
during exercise sympathetic rises and vagal tone withdraws
105
best way to measure sv
difference between ventricular end diastolic volume and the ventricular end systolic volume
sv is 70-80ml
106
factors affecting sv
preload- passive wall stress- blood filling ventricles and atria
afterload- active wall stress- muscle contracting, size of cardiac walls
inotropy- how contractile the ventricles are
107
example of interdepemdant change to SV
Exersice- increased venous return increases preload increasing stretch and therefore contractility of walls
108
ways of measuring cardiac output
Thermodilution- thermometer catheter, cold saline of known temp is injected into right atrium- as blood heats up it measures how quick blood is moving
Echocardiogram- estimates changes in dimensions which can be used to compute stroke volume
Radionuclide imaging- marked red blood cells are calculated how quick they are ejected
Fick principles- more oxygen extracted the slower the blood flow vice versa
109
what is heart failure
the inability of the heart to continue metabolising tissue adequately meaning it stops beating
110
what is the body's response to heart failure
the heart responds as if it was induced to exercise which is not sustainable
111
signs of left and right heart failure
left: acute pulmonary oedema, mitral valve regurgitation, third heart sound, pleural effusion, pink frothy sputum
right: ankle oedema, tricuspid regurgitation, elevated jugular venous pressure
112
