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Intro to Physiology > Physiology test 1 > Flashcards

Physiology test 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the five basic activities of cells?

A
  1. Exchange of materials with their environment
  2. Energy utilization
  3. Synthesis of simple and complex molecules
  4. Response to external stimuli
  5. Reproduction
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2
Q

What are tissues composed of?

A
  1. Cells that are similar structure and function
  2. Extracellular structures
  3. Interstitial fluid
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3
Q

What are the four levels of organization in the animal body?

A

Cells, Tissues, Organs, and Organ System

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4
Q

What is the function of Muscle Tissue?

A

Functions as contraction and generation of force. Characterized by elongation, composition of contractile filaments, and is sometimes organized into dark and light bands.

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5
Q

What is the function of Nerve Tissue?

A

Functions to initiate and conduct electrical signals; translation of chemical into electrical signals. Characterized by a large cell body and branching processes (axons and dendrites).

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6
Q

What is the function of Epithelial Tissue?

A

Functions for selective secretion or absorption of molecules. Characterized by cells lying close to each other, arrangement in single or multiple layers, and covers the body surface and lines below hollow organs.

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7
Q

What is the function of Connective Tissue?

A

Functions to connect and support body structures. Characterized by a large amount of extracellular material.

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8
Q

What are the three functions of the skin?

A
  1. Protection
  2. Sensation
  3. Thermoregulation
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9
Q

Where is the dermis and what is its function?

A

It is the layer below the epidermis. It supports and protects the skin, while playing roles in skin sensation and thermoregulation.

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10
Q

Where is the epidermis and what is its purpose?

A

It is the outermost layer of skin. It protects the body from water loss and disease-causing organisms.

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11
Q

What is melanin?

A

Pigment in epithelial cells that determines skin color.

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12
Q

Why is melanin important in the skin?

A

It protects the skin against harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation.

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13
Q

Why is Keratin important in the skin?

A

It helps support the skin and aids in healing epidermal wounds.

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14
Q

Who introduced the concept of the constancy of the internal environment?

A

Claude Bernard

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15
Q

Who coined the term ‘Homeostasis’?

A

Walter Cannon

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16
Q

What is Homeostasis?

A

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.

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17
Q

What is a Negative Feedback Loop?

A

When a change in the controlled variable triggers a response that opposes the change; maintains homeostasis.

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18
Q

What is a Positive Feedback Loop?

A

When a change in the controlled variable triggers a response that sustains the change; happens in blood clotting, giving birth.

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19
Q

List the steps of the physiological control system.

A
  1. Sensor to sensory receptor
  2. Afferent pathway to sensory neuron
  3. Control center to brain
  4. Efferent pathway to motor neuron
  5. Effector to muscle or gland
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20
Q

What are the four properties of water?

A
  1. Excellent solvent - loosely bonds with polar molecules and ions
  2. High heat of vaporization - evaporates from skin surface to cool the body.
  3. High Surface Tension - important to structure and function of lungs, gills, and buoyancy
  4. Ice floats
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21
Q

What is Cholesterol?

A

Steroid; increases membrane fluidity in human cells. Predominantly synthesized in the liver.

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22
Q

What are Integral Membrane Proteins?

A

Located within the lipid bilayer; most span the thickness of the bilayer. Functions: Channels, carriers, receptors.

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23
Q

What are Peripheral Proteins?

A

Located on the inner surface of the membrane; attached to integral proteins. Functions: Enzymes and regulatory subunits of receptors.

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24
Q

What are the four characteristics of protein binding sites?

A
  1. Specificity - recognition of a particular structure or conformation
  2. Affinity - strength of binding
  3. Competition - Two proteins compete for same ligand
  4. Saturation - all binding sites are occupied at high ligand concentrations
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25
What is the relationship between Kd and affinity?
If Kd decreases, affinity increases. If Kd increases, affinity decreases.
26
What is allosteric regulation?
Something else can bind to the allosteric site.
27
What is covalent modification?
Phosphorylation event (kinases).
28
What is the equation for enzyme affinity (Km)?
Km = [S]free = 50% of maximum reaction rate.
29
What is diffusion?
Dispersion of substances due to the random motion of molecules.
30
What is osmosis?
Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
31
What is Fick's Law?
The rate of diffusion is proportional to the concentration gradient: F=net flux (moles/sec) (driving force)/(resistance).
32
True or False: Rate of diffusion limits the size of the cell.
True
33
What is the relative distribution of sodium, potassium, and chloride ions inside and outside the cell?
Chloride ions are always in equilibrium. Sodium is high in concentration outside of the cell, while potassium is high in concentration inside the cell.
34
What is membrane potential?
Electrical potential difference across the cell membrane; typically at -70 mV.
35
What is the Nernst Equation?
Used to predict the membrane potential at which an ion is in equilibrium across the cell membrane: ZFE=RTln([ion]o/[ion]i).
36
What prevents Na+ from reaching equilibrium?
30% of your energy goes to the sodium-potassium ATPase.
37
What is facilitated diffusion?
Transport along a concentration gradient; uses no metabolic energy. Solute depends on specific carrier protein to cross the membrane.
38
What is primary active transport?
Transport against the concentration gradient; requires metabolic energy. Most active transporters transport ions.
39
What is secondary active transport?
Transport against the concentration gradient; indirectly linked to the primary active transport of an ion. Makes use of the energy stores by build up of ions against its concentration gradient.
40
How is glucose transported across a cell membrane?
Secondary active transport to enter and facilitated diffusion to leave.
41
What is the mechanism of receptors binding to ligands?
1. Receptors bind reversibly to chemical messengers (ligands) to produce a response 2. Response is transmitted into interior of the cell 3. Response depends on receptor type 4. Response may be tissue/cell type specific.
42
What is a Second Messenger?
Intracellular molecule that carries a signal from the cell membrane to the interior of the cell.
43
What is an example of an inorganic second messenger?
Ca2+
44
What is an example of an organic second messenger?
cAMP
45
What are the components of the structure of a neuron?
1. Cell Body 2. Dendrites 3. Axon
46
What are the three functions of nervous tissue?
1. Sensation 2. Communication 3. Control
47
What is Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)?
Membrane potential of an unstimulated cell (about -70 mV).
48
How is the resting membrane potential of a neuron maintained?
1. Selective permeability of the cell membrane - it is impermeable to proteins, fairly permeable to K+, and relatively permeable to Na+ 2. Maintenance of ion gradients by Na+-K+ ATPase - 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in.
49
What is the Goldman Equation?
A mathematical equation used to calculate the membrane potential based on the concentration of ions inside and outside the cell.
50
What is depolarization?
Increase in the membrane potential towards zero (less negative).
51
What is repolarization?
Return from the depolarized state toward the RMP (more negative).
52
What is hyperpolarization?
Decrease in membrane potential below resting membrane potential.
53
What is graded potential?
Local change in membrane potential in either a depolarizing or hyperpolarizing direction; can vary in amplitude, as it is related to stimulus intensity. Can be summed over time and space.
54
What is action potential?
Rapid reversal of polarity of the resting membrane potential. All-or-nothing response, not graded.
55
What is the ionic hypothesis?
Explains the action potential in terms of the movement of ions across the cell membrane.
56
What is Tetrodotoxin?
Toxin from the Japanese puffer fish. Blocks Na+ channels; prevents depolarization, therefore blocking nerve transmission.
57
What do local anesthetics do to the nervous system?
block Na+ channels.
58
What is Tetraethylammonium (TEA)?
Blocks K+ channels, so the action potential remains depolarized, never returning to RMP.
59
What is the absolute refractory period?
Period after AP during which a 2nd AP cannot be produced.
60
What is the relative refractory period?
Larger than normal stimulus is required to trigger 2nd AP. K+ channels are opened, and membrane is hyperpolarized.
61
What is saltatory conduction?
Jumps between the Nodes of Ranvier during an action potential.
62
What is a synapse?
Specialized junction between two neurons across which nerve impulses are transmitted.
63
What are the steps of a synapse?
1. Action potential reaches axon terminal 2. Causes opening of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in presynaptic membrane 3. Increase in [Ca2+] triggers release of vesicles 4. Neurotransmitter diffuse through synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on postsynaptic membrane.
64
What are the steps of post-synaptic transmission?
1. Binding of neurotransmitter to receptors causes a change in ion permeability of postsynaptic cell membrane 2. Opens ligand-gated ion channels 3. Flow of ions changes membrane potential 4. EPSP occurs, caused by depolarization.
65
What is an EPSP?
It is an excitatory post-synaptic potential that occurs due to the opening of ligand-gated Na+ channels.
66
What is an IPSP?
It is an inhibitory post-synaptic potential. It is a hyperpolarization caused by the opening of ligand-gated K+ or Cl- channels.
67
What are the main four neurotransmitters?
Acetylcholine, Norepinephrine, Dopamine, and Serotonin.
68
What is Acetylcholine?
Slows the heart, stimulates skeletal muscle contraction. Destruction of ACh neurons associated with Alzheimer's disease.
69
What is Norepinephrine?
Associated with behavioral arousal.
70
What is Dopamine?
Associated with pleasure and reward. Destruction of dopamine-containing neurons in an area of brain w/ movement can result in Parkinson's disease.
71
What is Serotonin?
Regulation of mood. Levels may be too low in certain forms of mental illness.
72
What is Acetylcholinesterase?
Stops the loop of neurotransmitters.
73
Who demonstrated that the stimulus for muscle contraction was electrical?
Luigi Galvani - 'The Lightning Experiment'.
74
Who developed stains necessary to visualize the nervous system?
Camillo Golgi - shared a Nobel prize in 1906 with Ramon y Cajal.
75
Who used Golgi's stain to show that nerve cells were not physically interconnected?
Santiago Ramon y Cajal - shared a Nobel prize in 1906 with Golgi.
76
Who conducted intracellular recording of changes in membrane potential during an action potential?
Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley - developed Voltage Clamp experiment.
77
Who provided the first direct evidence of chemical transmission of neuronal signal?
Otto Loewi - discovered acetylcholine (first neurotransmitter).
78
What is the spinal cord?
The link between brain and peripheral nervous system; comprised of gray matter, white matter, ascending tracts, and descending tracts.
79
What is the brainstem?
Most primitive region of the brain; control of breathing, blood pressure, and hypothalamus.
80
What is the function of the cerebellum?
Coordination and balance.
81
What is the hypothalamus?
Control of homeostatic systems; food intake, water balance, body temperature, and the endocrine system.
82
What is the thalamus?
Major relay station for sensory pathways; key role in awareness and control of skeletal muscle coordination.
83
What is the 'Limbic' System?
Comprised of septal nuclei, frontal lobe, olfactory bulb, thalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala. Roles in olfaction, emotion, motivation, and learning.
84
What is the cerebrum?
80% of the brain, center for higher function.
85
What is the corpus callosum?
Connects the 2 cerebral hemispheres.
86
What is the function of the frontal lobe?
Important in movement, language, expression of emotion.
87
What is the function of the parietal lobe?
Important for sensory information from skin and joints.
88
What is the function of the occipital lobe?
Important for vision.
89
What is the function of the temporal lobe?
Important for hearing, memory, and language.
90
What are the specialized functions for the left hemisphere?
Controlling of speech, math and logic.
91
What are the specialized functions of the right hemisphere?
Non-language skills; such as art and music.
92
What is receptor potential?
Local depolarization of the sensory receptor membrane in response to a stimulus.
93
What is a receptive field?
Area innervated by a single sensory neuron; more sensitive areas have smaller receptive fields and a greater density of sensory receptors.
94
What determines stimulus type?
Determined by the type of receptor activated; each type is highly sensitive to one type of stimulus and not responsive to other stimuli.
95
What determines stimulus intensity?
Determined by the frequency of action potentials.
96
What is sensory adaptation?
Decrease in sensory receptor firing when the stimulus is maintained at a constant level.
97
What is stimulus location?
Stimuli from two different locations travel along separate pathways and are sent to different parts of the brain.
98
What is the somatosensory cortex?
Receives sensory information from skin and joints; location of pathway termination in somatosensory cortex.
99
Cone Cells
light sensing cells in the retina that detect color

Intro to Physiology (5 decks)

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