PoP 1-5 Flashcards
(76 cards)
1
Q
What is the definition of a state according to Max Weber?
A
A state is ‘the only human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.’
This definition emphasizes the unique authority of the state over violence within its territory.
2
Q
What is state capacity?
A
The organisational and bureaucratic ability of a state to effectively implement political decisions and enforce policies
3
Q
What is state scope?
A
The range of activities, responsibilities, or functions that a government undertakes or controls within a society (how much the state wants to interfere)
4
Q
What are the three levels of state scope?
A
- Minimal: Defense, security, property rights, taxation.
- Intermediate: Public health, disaster relief, macroeconomic management.
- Activist: Social insurance, asset redistribution, regulating markets.
5
Q
What are the dimensions of state capacity?
A
- Coercive capacity – enforcement, mandate . Autocratic tend to have more coercive capacity
- Infrastructural capacity – ability to provide resources people want/need . Democracies tend to have more infrastructural capacity
- Informational capacity – ability to source information on what people want/need. Democracies have features e.g. elections, polling, but party-based autocratic regimes can also be good at this
- Administrative capacity: organizing and managing bureaucratic institutions: ensuring efficient execution of policy.
6
Q
Why does Singapore have high state capacity?
A
- Stong bureaucracy: highly competitive, merit-based, and professional civil service
- Strict anti-corruption laws and effective enforcement: SG has the lowest corruption rate worldwide
- Highly centralised/authoritarian government
- Allows efficient decision-making and policy implementation
- Long-term leadership brings political stability and enables long-term strategic planning
- Critics: stability comes at the cost of political freedoms, freedom of speech, and vibrant civil society - Strong state-led initiatives leading to efficient civil service delivery
- Top-down approaches are efficient but not necessarily inclusive
7
Q
What are two examples of high state capacity but low state scope?
A
Singapore: narrow and small-scale welfare programmes, unlike Scandinavian states
Hong Kong (before 2020): relied heavily on market-driven policies; minimal welfare provisions, low taxation, and limited state intervention in business
8
Q
What is an example of low state capacity?
A
Venezuela under Maduro: attempt to expand large-scale and expensive social programmes, but weak capacity leads to inability to deliver effectively
9
Q
What is patronage? Give an example.
A
Individuals or groups (patrons) provide jobs, favours, contracts, or other tangible benefits to their supporters (clients) in exchange for loyalty, political support, or votes.
Example: Russia under Putin (patronage in authoritarian)
- State-controlled businesses are led by Putin’s allies.
- Loyal oligarchs receive lucrative contracts, protection, and government resources.
- Increase regime stability and elite loyalty
- Opposition often don’t have access to resources, leading to reduced political competition
10
Q
How does patronage differ from corruption?
A
Patronage emphasises political loyalty and maintaining power through reward mechanisms, while corruption involves exploiting public office for private benefit at the expense of public interest.
11
Q
What is imperialism?
A
The efforts of a state to exert control over another state or people; an active and deliberate strategy through which one political entity seeks dominance over another
12
Q
What are the three conditions of imperialism according to Kohli (2022)?
A
- Imperial powers exercise veto power over key policies in client states.
- Collaboration between ruling elites in the empire’s center and periphery.
- Coercion is used (or threatened) when domination is challenged.
13
Q
What is the impact of colonialism according to Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson?
A
Colonial institutions continue to shape economic and political development today.
Countries with extractive colonial institutions often struggle with governance and economic growth, due to economic extractivism and political subjugation.
14
Q
What is the difference between imperialism and colonialism?
A
Colonialism is usually seen as a subset of imperialism, specifically involving direct political administration and settlement.
Imperialism is broader, encompassing various indirect or direct mechanisms of control beyond formal colonisation; political scientists see it as an ongoing structural relationship.
15
Q
What are the three forms of imperialism?
A
- Colonial Imperialism: Direct territorial occupation and political control (e.g., British colonies in South Asia and Africa).
- Economic Imperialism: Control through economic dominance without direct colonisation.
- After independence, many African states remained economically tied to former colonial powers. For instance, foreign corporations might control local resources (like minerals, oil, or agriculture), profiting disproportionately while limiting local economic development.
- China’s infrastructure investments and loans through initiatives such as the Belt and Road Initiative often come with strings attached, leading to long-term economic dependency, sometimes described by critics as “debt-trap diplomacy.” - Cultural Imperialism: Imposing dominant cultural values, languages, and norms (e.g., dominance of English through historical British colonialism, and subsequently, American economic and cultural influence).
16
Q
What is nationalism (and its characteristics)?
A
An identity binding individuals together through shared political solidarity. Characteristics:
1. Aims to create, legitimate or challenge states
2. Involves the belief that a nation has the right to self-determination, political autonomy, and distinct identity
3. Expressed through everyday practices, such as flags, anthems, and ceremonies.
17
Q
What is a nation?
A
- A social identity based on a myth of common ancestry.
- A group of people aspiring to self-rule over a defined territory.
18
Q
Why do some societies have strong and capable nation-states?
A
- Robust political institutions and rule of law (check and balance), e.g. Singapore
- Rich in resources coupled with effective management, e.g. Norway and oil vs Venezuela and Nigeria (non-effective management)
- Strong sense of identity leads to social cohesion and high legitimacy of the government (nationalism may strengthen this), e.g. Japan
- Colonial legacies such as artificial borders and foreign aid dependency can lead to weak state capacity
19
Q
What is a nationalist movement?
A
- An organized political effort to achieve national goals, such as independence, sovereignty, or national recognition.
- It is a form of collective action driven by nationalist ideology.
20
Q
What are the three types of nationalism and examples of their movements?
A
- Civic Nationalism:
Emphasises shared citizenship, democratic institutions, civic participation, and equal rights.
- Scotland’s nationalist movement, largely civic, emphasises democratic rights, shared citizenship, and inclusive politics, culminating in the 2014 independence referendum, and continuing demands for self-determination - Ethnic Nationalism:
Focuses on shared ethnicity, language, religion, or ancestry. Can lead to exclusionary policies.
- Based on cultural, linguistic, and historical distinctiveness, Catalan nationalists advocate for greater autonomy or full independence from Spain, leading to political tensions and referendums.
- Kurdish people spread across Turkey, Iraq, Syria, and Iran have long sought an independent Kurdish state, driven by a strong sense of ethnic identity and shared history, resulting in ongoing political struggles and autonomy movements. - Anti-Colonial Nationalism:
Drives independence movements in former colonies, resisting imperial control and asserting political independence
- Led by Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam’s nationalist movement combined anti-colonial and socialist ideologies, first against French colonialism, then against American intervention, culminating in Vietnamese reunification in 1975.
21
Q
What is collective action?
A
When individuals work together to achieve common goals or pursue shared interests, often related to providing public goods or achieving policy and political changes.
22
Q
What is the collective action problem?
A
- The dominant strategy for each actor (individual or state) is usually not to cooperate, since this maximises short-term individual gain.
- This leads to a suboptimal outcome where collective benefits are undermined, known as the “tragedy of the commons.”
- Domestic level - clean air; international level – climate change
23
Q
What are the factors that make collective action difficult?
A
- Weak linkage structures (low trust).
- Large participant numbers.
- Limited face-to-face communication.
- Heterogeneous participants (diverse interests).
24
Q
What are the five factors that differentiate various types of nationalism?
A
- Coherence among elites (unified or divided leadership).
- Coherence among the mass population.
- Ascriptive vs. chosen identity.
- Thick vs. thin nationalism.
- High vs. low salience.
25
What is the definition of political order?
Huntington - the presence of strong, adaptable and coherent political institutions
1. The stable organization of power, institutions, and authority that enables a society to function effectively.
2. It ensures governance, law enforcement, and social stability while preventing chaos, violence, or anarchy.
3. Political Order = Institutionalization/Mobilization
26
What are the essential elements of political order?
1. Effective bureaucracies.
2. Well-organized political parties.
3. High levels of popular participation.
4. Military control preventing undue intervention.
5. Government involvement in the economy.
6. Stable succession processes.
27
What is a regime and an example of regime change?
Systems of government /architecture of access to power
Example: Myanmar has changed between monarchical, military autocratic, democratic regimes at different points in time
28
What distinguishes a regime from a government?
Regime: The overarching system of governance. Government: The specific group in power at a given time.
29
What are the three main regime types?
1. Democracy: Fair rules, inclusive suffrage, competition, and elections.
2. Autocracy: Power concentrated in leaders, weak accountability.
3. Hybrid Regimes: Blend democratic and autocratic elements.
30
What are the core elements of democracy?
1. Free and fair elections (fair rules, fair competition, inclusive suffrage).
2. Civil liberties (freedom of speech, media access).
3. Political competition (multiple parties).
4. Absence of unelected veto (eg. civilian control of military).
5. Checks and balances (parliament, courts, media - both vertical and horizontal).
Example: Pakistan – there are elections, civil liberties, competition. But the military has an effective veto over all policies enacted by government
31
What are the four types of autocratic regimes?
1. Personalist autocratic regime
- Leader and their supporters hold power
- Bad at delivering political order and governance outcomes
a) Low C&B: Few constraints on decision making; high patronage
b) Low informational capacity: Difficult to assess people’s preference
c) Weak impartial bureaucracy: State institution can exist but line between state and individual leader is blurred
2. Single party autocratic regime
- Leaders selected by the party structure
- High degree of political order: Longest lasting, fewest coups, highest pattern of economic growth
a) High C&B: Parties impose constraints on leaders
b) Well organized political parties -> high informational capacity: able to organize grassroots/embed party into society more effectively; Parties facilitate bargains between different interests
3. Military autocratic regime
- The military as an institution has power
- Low political order - Relatively short duration, poor governance outcomes
a) Low informational capacity: Military doesn't represent broad interests; Lose legitimacy if not delivering
b) Low effective bureaucracy: Susceptible to personalism
4. Monarchical autocratic regime
- The royal family has power
- Long-lasting, poor governance outcomes
a) Low informational capacity: Draw on historical/religious sources of legitimacy rather than performance-based legitimacy
b) Low C&B: Few constraints on decision making
c) Low effective bureaucracy: Susceptible to personalism
32
What are hybrid regimes?
1. Have elections
2. Have legislature, often weak: Legislature is weak but possible meaningful
3. Sometimes have independent courts; Courts occasionally go maverick
4. Existing but limited independent media
- Most countries are hybrid
33
What are some types of hybrid regimes?
1. Electoral/competitive authoritarianism (Russia - there are elections but they are unfair).
2. Illiberal democracy (Hungary - elections occur but civil liberties are weak).
3. Semi-democracy (Thailand).
34
What is preference falsification?
Misrepresentation of one’s preference under perceived social pressures. Individuals may hide true preference if they think it is risky to reveal their true preference.
- Autocracies concentrate governing power and create incentive to falsify preferences > unreliable information and reduced informational capacity > how revolution starts
Eg. What looks like a sudden opposition is actually a latent opposition waiting for the cascading effect ; The growth in the opposition induces cascading people to join because people feel safer in numbers (Arab Spring)
35
What is the 'Freezing Hypothesis' proposed by Lipset and Rokkan?
The idea that European party systems and cleavages of the 1960s still reflected 1920s social divisions.
36
What is the impact of regime type on economic development?
Regime type influences economic policies, rights, and political stability.
37
What is the definition of social cleavages?
Social divisions that distinguish groups of people on the basis of key social-structural characteristics
Cleavages require:
1. A social cleavage grounded in a distinct social reality
2. A collective sense of identity and a common value system
3. Organisation
38
What is the definition of political cleavages?
Social cleavages around which political competition orientates, or, a social cleavage that has become politically relevant
39
What are linkage mechanisms and its three types?
Linkages are the bonds between parties (or politicians) and voters.
Programmatic (an appeal based on proposed public policies; no tight reciprocity), clientelist (provision of benefits to supporters in exchange for votes - contingent direct exchange, predictability, monitoring, like vote buying), and charismatic linkages (direct, personal appeal rooted in the charisma of a leader)
40
What are coinciding vs cross-cutting cleavages?
Coinciding cleavages reinforce divisions (eg. if all members of a religious group are also part of an ethnic group)
Cross-cutting cleavages create overlaps between different groups and moderate conflict by preventing groups from being permanently excluded. Dahl says this is crucial for a healthy democracy
41
What is the role of political parties?
1. Mobilizing voters, enabling politicians to advertise.
2. Representing interests.
3. Recruiting and training candidates.
4. Reduce informational burdens on voters because they have bounded rationality and limited cognitive capacity
42
What are the major electoral systems?
1. Majoritarian (e.g., two party, First-Past-the-Post).
2. Proportional Representation (PR) (e.g., List PR).
3. Mixed systems.
43
What is the personal vote?
Candidates may win based on personal characteristics rather than party affiliation.
44
What is the impact of electoral systems on political competition or ethnic tensions?
Electoral systems shape party strategies and influence how personalism and ethnic tensions manifest. First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) can permanently exclude large minority groups. Open-list PR can incentivise personalism
45
What is the concept of 'ethnic outbidding'?
Parties intensify ethnic polarisation to outcompete rivals. An auction-like process where ethnically-based political parties adopt extreme ideological positions as a means of distancing themselves from rival parties
46
What is dealignment and realignment?
Dealignment = voters turn away from parties they have traditionally supported
Realignment = switching of voter preferences from one party to another (see: Inglehart's post-materialism thesis)
47
What is party institutionalisation?
Institutionalisation = extent of stability in parties competing and collaborating
- Stable party systems generate information about who the parties are and how they behave.
Lack of institutionalization = frequent reshuffling of parties, erratic interparty interactions.
- Diminish capacity of government to implement consistent policies.
- Can erode legitimacy of democratic institutions and create openings for antidemocratic actors
48
What is pluralism?
1. When interest groups engage in competition for policy influence.
2. No single group is permanently dominant because others mobilize when their interests are threatened.
3. Policy outcomes emerge from the balancing of competing forces.
49
What is the main critique of pluralism according to Schattschneider (quote)?
“The flaw in the pluralist heaven is that the heavenly choir sings with a strong upper-class accent.”
Pluralist theory is flawed because wealthier and more organised groups have disproportionate influence.
50
What is regulatory capture?
When industries exert undue influence over their regulators, and industries dominate the regulatory agencies meant to oversee them.
51
What is Wilson's critique of regulatory capture?
1. Agencies meant to serve the public instead favor the industries they regulate due to industry influence through lobbying, political contributions, or other means, shaping rules to benefit incumbents over consumers.
2. The collective action problem of the public is larger than that of industry because of dispersed benefit.
52
What is Wilson's matrix?
1. Interest Group Politics (labour regulation).
2. Entrepreneurial Politics (car safety, usually interest group against consumer interest).
3. Client Politics or Regulatory Capture (agricultural price supports).
4. Majoritarian Politics (social security).
53
What are interest groups?
An organized group of individuals or organizations that seek to influence public policy and government decisions to benefit their specific interests or causes eg. NRA
54
What are the three types of power that interest groups can have?
1. Instrumental power
2. Structural power
3. Platform power
55
What is instrumental power?
Businesses' direct influence on policy through lobbying, campaign contributions, and advocacy to shape regulations in their favor.
56
What is structural power?
Businesses' implicit political influence due to society's economic dependence on their investments, leading policymakers to avoid regulations that may trigger job losses or reduced investment (eg. governments always think of how businesses will respond
57
What is platform power?
Control and influence that digital platforms (like social media, e-commerce, or search engines) have over users, businesses, and markets
58
What is the implication of Wilson's model regarding interest groups?
Interest groups thrive when both benefits and costs are concentrated among specific groups.
59
What is the relationship between collective action problems and interest group effectiveness?
Large, diffuse groups struggle to organize, while small, concentrated groups are more effective.
60
What are legitimacy coalitions?
How businesses, policymakers (state), and interest groups align to justify regulations by appealing to public interest. These coalitions shape and sustain policies by crafting narratives that resonate with societal values, ensuring regulatory stability even when benefiting specific groups
61
What are the two legitimacy narratives?
1. Access (for everyone) - things people deserve to have
2. Protection (for everyone) - especially consumer legislation e.g. airline consumer protection
62
What are the three public narratives?
Marshall Ganz
1. Story of self – call to leadership
2. Story of now – strategy and action
3. Story of us – shared values and shared experiences
63
What are social movements?
Collective challenges engaging elites, opponents, and authorities.
- Operate outside bureaucratic structures, relying on:
1. Voluntary participation.
2. Shared commitments.
3. Ongoing motivation
64
What are the three common elements of social movements?
1. Collective purpose
2. Sustained interaction
3. Challenging the status quo
65
What is Olson's collective action problem?
1. Free rider: Individuals benefit from collective goods whether they contribute or not, leading to underinvestment in collective action.
2. Rational Choice Problem: People will only participate if their personal gain equals or exceeds the group’s collective benefit
Solution: Groups must offer selective incentives (exclusive benefits) to encourage participation.
66
What is delegation?
1. When a "principal" (e.g., politicians) relies on an "agent" (e.g., bureaucrats) to act on their behalf
2. Tradeoff: control vs expertise
67
What are the three reasons for delegation?
1. Public Interest Explanation:
- Delegation restricts politicians from making impulsive decisions.
- Ensures: Expertise, Impartiality, Long-term planning
Example: Independent central banks to curb inflation.
2. Credible Commitment Explanation:
- Politicians (P) make promises to voters (V).
- Voters doubt if P will keep their promises over time.
- Solution: P delegates responsibility to an independent trustee (T) to ensure follow-through.
3. Opportunistic Delegation (Machiavelli):
- Policies are complex.
- Bureaucrats have expertise.
- Politicians avoid blame for policy failures (e.g., food safety).
- Policies don’t offer electoral benefits.
(moral hazard, risks are high and benefits low)
68
What are the challenges of delegation?
1. Capture: independent body is supposed to regulate a sector or industry but it regulates in the interests of the sector instead of in the public interest
2. “Administrative state”: power lies in bureaucrats instead of elected officials, even in democracies (deep state)
3. Lack of transparency or accountability (“black box”) - decisions made behind closed doors and not scrutinized publicly
4. Principal agent problem
69
What is bureaucratic discretion?
The ability of public officers to make choices in policy execution.
70
What are the three types of discretion in bureaucracy?
1. Deliberate discretion (Bureaucrats are granted authority for public interest, political strategy, or credibility)
2. Inadvertent discretion (Arises from 1) goal ambiguity, 2) legislative gridlock)
3. Inevitable discretion (Inherently unavoidable in the enactment of any rules no matter how detailed or extensive, eg. street level bureaucracy)
71
What is the difference between deliberate and inadvertent discretion?
Deliberate discretion is granted intentionally; inadvertent discretion arises from unintended gaps in policy.
72
What are control mechanisms for bureaucratic discretion?
1. Monitoring
2. Incentives
3. Procedures
4. Socialization
73
What is the Principal-Agent Problem?
1. Goal conflict - Principal (P) delegates to agent (A) and A's interests might differ from P's
2. Information asymmetry - A is information rich compared to P
74
What are ways to minimize principal-agent problem?
1. Contract design
2. Screening and selection (to minimise goal conflict)
3. Monitoring and reporting
4. Procedural controls (monitoring how the decision is made if you can't monitor the decision itself)
75
What are the two different types of monitoring?
1. Police patrol - proactive
2. Fire alarm - reactive
76
What are the benefits and costs of monitoring?
Benefits:
1. Alerting to inadvertent discretion
2. Shows bureaucrats are effectively implementing policy
Costs:
1. Gaming - what isn't measured isn't done
2. Wasting resources
3. Plenty of opportunities to misbehave
