Practical Exam 1 Flashcards
(185 cards)
1
Q
power switch
A
provides electrical power to the microscope
2
Q
ocular (eyepiece)
A
contains a 10x magnification lens
3
Q
diopter adjustment ring
A
to compensate for differences in acuity between eyes
4
Q
objectives
A
lenses of varying magnification (4x, 10x, 20x, 40x, 100x). The magnification values are usually engraved on the objective
5
Q
stage
A
platform upon which the slide is positioned for focusing
6
Q
slide holder
A
holds slide in place for x-y movement around stage
7
Q
X-Y axis knobs
A
move slide holder vertically or horizontally around stage
8
Q
coarse focus
A
large knobs on both sides of the microscope base that allow for initial focusing of the object to be viewed
9
Q
fine focus
A
small knobs on both sides of the microscope base that allow for refinement of detail in focusing
10
Q
condenser
A
a lens just under the stage and the specimen that concentrates the light under the specimen
11
Q
aperture iris diaphragm
A
it controls the amount of light passing through the specimen, which therefore helps control the contrast and resolution of the image seen
12
Q
condenser centering screws
A
to adjust positioning of the condenser lens
13
Q
field iris diaphragm ring
A
controls how much of the original light source gets sent to the condenser
14
Q
light intensity knob
A
controls the intensity (voltage) of light sent through the field of iris diaphragm
15
Q
magnification
A
the number of times an image’s size is enlarged
16
Q
total magnification with a 4x objective lens
A
40x (10x ocular lens and 4x objective lens)
17
Q
total magnification with a 10x objective lens
A
100x (10x ocular lens and 10x objective lens)
18
Q
total magnification with a 40x objective lens
A
400x (10x ocular lens and 40x objective lens)
19
Q
total magnification with a 100x objective lens
A
1000x (10x ocular lens and 100x objective lens)
20
Q
resolution
A
ability to separate two distinct structures under a microscope
21
Q
tissue
A
cluster of cells that are similar in structure and function
22
Q
4 major tissues in the body
A
epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve (neural)
23
Q
common characteristics of epithelial tissue
A
composition: sheets of cells that line and cover body surfaces, both internally and externally
major functions: protection of surfaces, secretion or excretion of biochemical substances or absorption of material
epithelial cells are anchored to underlying tissues by means of a basement membrane (aka basal lamina) , a glue-like material secreted by the base layer of epithelial cells. It’s basically a non-living network of fibers that cements the epithelial cells to the underlying connective tissue
24
Q
microvilli
A
finger-like projections of the epithelial cells that serve to increase the surface area to increase absorption, secretion, or excretion. when the apical surface is covered with microvilli it is often regerred to as the brush border. the intestines is one place you’ll see lots of microvilli because lots of absorption needs to take place
25
cilia
long hair-like structures that beat in a rhythmic fashion to help move materials across the epithelial cell's surface. you'll see cilia oin the lungs
26
keratin
a protective waterproof material that is produced in the epithelial cells found in skin
27
simple
one layer
28
stratified
two or more layers
29
squamous
very thin; but from a different angle they look like fried eggs
30
cuboidal
cube-shaped; nuclei arranged in a single row in the center
31
columnar
elongated; nuclei arranged in a row at the base of the cell
32
simple epithelia
```
made up of a single cell layer of cells
fragile an dtends to line internal compartments and passageways such as body cavities and blood vessels
three basic types of simple epithelia:
-simple squamous
-simple cuboidal
-sinple columnar
```
33
simple squamous epithelia
thin, flat, irregular
form a pavement-like sheet in various organs that perform filtering or exchange functions such as the passing of gas or liquids in or out of a compartment
depending on location depends on name:
-pleural (chest), pericardial (heart), peritoneal (abdominal) called mesothelium
-blood vessels and lymphatic vessels called endothelium
34
simple cuboidal epithelia
stout and blocklike in cross section and hexagonal from a surface view
nuclei are centered
found in sheltered ducts of the body (kidney, thyroid, salivary, pancreas, the ovary, and the lends of the eye)
35
simple columnar epithelia
elongated between their apical and basal surfaces
nuclei are generally aligned in a row at the base of the cell
found throughout the most of the digestive tract, from the stomach to the rectum
two specialized types: an absortive cell and a goblet cell
36
ciliated simple columnar cells
seen lining the respiratory tract and uterine tubes
37
stratified epithelia
stratified epithelium is located in areas that are subject ti mechanical or chemical stress, such as the surface of skin and the mouth
three major types: stratified squamous epithelia, stratified columnar epithelia, transitional epithelia, and pseudostratified epithelia
38
stratified squamous epithelia
superficial cells distinctly squamous
deepest layer is generally columnar or cuboidal
protection is the chief function
exposed inner and oter surfaces of the body, such as the skin, oral cavity, esophagus, vagina, and cornea
39
stratified columnar epithelia
superficial cells are distinctly columnar, the deeper cels are irregular or polyhedral
variablein height
protection and secretion are the chief functions of this type of tissue
limited to some glands, the conjunctive, the pharynx, a portion of the urethra, and the anus
40
pseudostratified epithelia
presents a superficial stratified appearance because of the staggered nuclei as well as two different cell orientations
only one layer thick
every cell is in contact with the basal lamina
41
transitional epithelia
the surface layer consists of large, round, domeshaped cells which ma be binucleate
organs such as the urinary bladder, ureters, and kidneys contain the epithelium
42
loose connective tissue proper
areolar
adipose
reticular
43
dense connective tissue proper
dense regular
dense irregular
elastic
44
fluid connective tissue
blood
| lymph
45
3 cartilage types
hyaline cartilage
elastic cartilage
fibrocartilage
46
adipose tissue
loose connective tissue proper which is predominantly filled with adipocytes or fat
found beneath the skin, in spaces between muscles, behind the eyeballs, on the surface of the heart, surrounding the joints , in bone marrow, and among the omentum of the abdomen
47
blood
most atypical type of connective tissue
| consists of red blood cells primarily and also white blood cells
48
bone
the hardest and most rigid type of connective tissue
| two types: compact bone and spongy bone
49
smooth muscle
nonstriated, involuntary
composed of small, spindle-shaped cells that lack striation or bands and therefore appear "smooth"
centrally located nucleus
in walls of hollow organs such as the esophagus, stomach, intestine, colon, blood vessels, and bladder
also in skin attached to hair and in the iris of the eye
moves food through digestive tract, regulates the size of an organ, controls light entering the eye, moves fluid through vessels, and causes hair to stand erect
50
cardiac muscle
striated, involuntary
cells are cylindrical and branched with a single centrally located nucleus
cells form an intricate network and are connected by intercalated disks (specialized type of gap junction)
found only in the heart
pumps blood through the vascular system
51
skeletal muscle
striated, voluntary
cells are striped, long, and cylindrical, each one with multiple, eccentrically placed nuclei
attached to bone and occasionally to skin, eyeballs, and upper part of the esophagus
voluntary movement of bodym including movement of the eyes and the initial part of swallowing
52
neurons
these cells respond to stimuli
conduct electrical impulses to and from all body organs and from one area of the CNS to another
made up of the cell bodies (consisting of the nucleus and most of the organelles) and cytoplasmic ramifications (branching) dendrites receive stimuli and axons generate nerve impulses and transmit them from one part of the body to another
53
neuroglial cells
support, protect, and bind the neurons together
54
dorsal plane
divides the body into dorsal and ventral parts
55
transverse plane
divides into cranial and caudal parts
56
sagittal plane
divides the body into left and right parts
57
median plane
divides into equal left and right halves
58
left
the animals left
59
right
the animals right
60
cranial
toward the head
61
caudal
toward the tail
62
rostral
toward the tip of the nose
63
dorsal
toward the backbone
64
ventral
toward the belly
65
medial
toward the median plane
66
lateral
away from the median plane
67
deep
towards the center of the body
68
superficial
towards the surface
69
proximal
towards the attachment of the appendage
70
distal
away from the attachment of the appendage
71
cranial surface
front surface of the leg
72
caudal surface
back surface of the leg
73
dorsal surface
front of the leg and the top of the foot
74
palmar surface
back of the limb including the bottom of the front feet
75
planter surface
back of the limb including the bottom of the back feet
76
dorsal recumbent (supine)
animal is lying on its back with its belly facing upward
77
sternal/ventral recumbency (prone)
lying on its sternum with its back facing upward
78
lateral recumbency
lying on its side
79
hypertonic
water moves out of the cell and the cell shrinks/shrivels (crenation)
80
hypotonic
water moves into the cell and bursts (hemolysis)
81
isotonic
no change to the cell
82
integumentary system
skin and related structures including every inch of the external animal (hair, hooves, horns, claws) and skin-related glands
83
keratinization
when skin cells make room for the tough, protective, substance called keratin and give up vital organelles
84
skin
made up of two distinct layers: epidermis and dermis
85
dermis layers
```
papillary layer (20%)
reticular layer (80%)
```
86
dermal paillae
nipple like projections that the dermis forms
87
subcutaneous (hypodermis)
rich with adipose, blood, and lymphatic vessels, and nerves
permits the skin to move freely over underlying bone and muscle without putting tension on the skin that would result in tearing
88
layers of the epidermis
```
stratum germinativum (basal layer)
stratum spinosum
stratum granulosum
stratum lucidum
stratum corneum
```
89
stratum germinativum
basal layer-deepest layer
consists of a single row of keratinocytes which are firmyl arrached to the epithelial basement membrane
merkel's cells and melanocytes are also found in this layer
90
stratum spinosum
contract into speculated masses that resemble sea urchins
contains several layers of cells
langerhans' cells are found in greater abundance in this layer where their slender projections form a weblike frma around keratinocytes
91
stratum granulosum
granular layer
middle layer of the epidermis
composed of two to four layers of flattened diamond-shaped keratocytes
92
stratum lucidum
clear layer
only found in very thick skin
appears translucent
93
stratum corneum
horny layer-outermost layer
dominates the epidermis
constitutes up to 3/4 of the total epidermis thickness
commonly called dandruff
94
hair shaft
the part of the hair that is visible above the skin
95
hair root
portion buried within the skin
96
hair follicle
what anchors the hair
| an invagination of the epidermis that extends from the skin surface to the dermis or, occasionally, the hypodermis
97
hair bulb
the deepest part of the hair follicle
98
T/F: hair and fur are different
FALSE: there is no difference between hair and fur, their chemical composition is exactly the same
99
sebaceous glands
oil galnds
found in all parts of the skin except for palms and soles
ducts usually empty into a hair follicle, but some open directly on the skin surface
oil produced is called sebum
prevents hair from drying and keeps skin soft and pliable
100
paw pads
many animals have multiple pads on their feet
| includes the: carpal pads, metacarpal/metatarsal pads, and the digital pads
101
noses
animals can have wet, dry, moist, hot, and cold noses
102
ergots and chestnuts
dark, horny structures found on the legs of horses, ponies, and other members of the equine family
though to be vestiges of the carpal and tarsal pads of the second and forth digits which regressed through evolution
103
cutaneous puches in sheep
infoldings of the skin
three primary locations are in front of the eye, between the digits above the hooves, and in the groin
each of the puches contain fine hairs and numerous sebaceous (oil) glands
the glands secrete a fatty, yellow substance, which covers and sticks to the skin when dry
104
compact bone
osteonic
smooth, homogenous; makes up the shafts of long bones and the outside layer of all bones; contains microscopic cylindrical structures called "haversion systems" or "osteons"
provides protectection and support and helps the long bones resist the stress of weight placed on them
105
cancellous bone
trabecular; spongy
found in the extremities of long bones and between two layers of compact bone, as in the skull; contains an open network of "trabeculea" or "spicules"
106
long bones
proportionally longer than they are wide
| each has a central marrow cavity and a proximal and distal epiphysis
107
short bones
about as short as they are wide
108
flat bones
2 plates of compact bone with spongy bone in between
109
irregular bones
irregularly shaped bones, such as the vertebrae and some skull bones that don't fall into any other category
sesamoid bones are a type of irregular bone and an example is the patella (kneecap)
110
head
the proximal end of a bone; it may have a neck attached
111
process
a prominence or projection on a bone
112
condyle
a rounded projection on the distal end of a bone
113
tuber(osity)
a large prominence on a bone, generally a bit 'rough'
114
foramen
a hole in a bone
115
bird vertebrae adaptations
some are fused for rigidity in flight. the fused thoraci vertebrae are called "notarium"
fused sacral vertebrae are called "synsacrum
116
bird leg adaptations
some leg bones are fused ("tibiotarsus" and "tarsometatarsals") this helps prevent twisting and turning upon landing
117
pneumatized bones
for some bones some of the inner marrow is replaced with air sacs to make bones lighter
not all bones are pneumatized and not all species of birds have the same degree of phenumatization
birds that do a lot of diving have relatively solid bones versus birds that do a lot of flying
118
keeled sternum
birds have a 'keeled' sternum-to attach the huge breast muscles needed to power the wings
119
bird scapula adaptations
```
the scapula in birds is a very narrow, flat rod, which runs parallel to the vertebrae
function is to carry weight in mammals but it would get in the way and restrict wing movement
```
120
coracoid bone
an extra shoulder bone found in birds (not mammels) that help support the wings for easier flight
one of the three bones of the 'pectoral girdle'
121
bird skeletal muscle adaptations
light 'meat' muscles or dark 'meat' muscles
light colored muscles are not used as much as dark colored muscles
muscles used a lot are darker because they are more heavily vascuralized and have lotsof myoglobin (red pigment)
EX: chicken=light breast muscle and dark leg muscle
EX2: albatross=dark breast muscles and light leg muscles
122
haversian system
concentric rings surrounding a hole in the bone
123
haversian canal
the central hole of the haversian system
124
lamellae
the rings around the hole are layers of bone-tissue arranged concentrically around the central canal
125
lacunae
between the lamellae they are the concentric dark specks
126
canaliculi
fine dark lines in the concentric rings
127
interstitial lamellae
illing in the irregular intervalss which are left between them with lacunae and canaliculi running in various directions but more or less curved
128
volkman's canals
canals that run parallel with the longitudinal axis of the bone for a short distance
129
plantigrade
species that place the full length of their foot on the gound when walking (humans, apes, bears)
130
digitgade
species that walk with most of the length of their digits on the ground, but not the sole of their feet (dogs, racoons)
131
unguligrade
species that walk on their tip toes, often on hooves (horses, deep, sheep, goats, cattle)
132
fibrous joints
these joints lack a space (called synovial cavity) between the bones and are held together by tough, fibrous connective tissue
133
cartilaginous joints
these joints also lack a synovial cavity but are held together by cartilage
134
synovial joints
in these joints there is a synovial cavity and the bones forming the joint are united together by dense connective tissue and often by accessory ligaments
135
synarthroses
```
immovable joints (firbous joints are immovable)
EX: joints connecting the skull bones together
```
136
amphiarthroses
slightly movable joints (cartilaginous joins fall in this category)
137
diarthroses
freely moveable joints (synovial joints
138
hinge joints
one joint surface swivels around another, allowing only flexion and/or extension EX: knee elbow
139
gliding joints
relatively flat bones moving back and forth or side to side with respect to one another, with no significant change in the angle between the two bones
EX: movement between the carpal or tarsal bones in the wrist or ankle
140
pivot joints
one bone pivots or rotates on another; only rotation movement occurs here
most people agree that there is only one true pivot joint in the animal body, the joint between the 1st and 2nd cervical verebrae
141
ball and socket joint
these are the most flexible joints, allowing all the movements to occur EX: hip/shoulder
142
central nervous system
CNS
| brain and spinal cord
143
peripheral nervous system
PNS
nerves and their roots
sensory and motor neurons
can be further divided into the somatic and autonomic divisions
144
somatic nervous system
responsible for voluntary control of skeletal muscle an dour five senses
145
autonomic nervous system
involuntary control of internal organs
| further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
146
sympathetic nervous system
arouses us to fight or flight in an emergency
| accelerates heartbeat, blood sugar rises, perspiration occurs, digestion is slowed, arteries dilated
147
parasympathetic nervous system
rest and digest
| decreases heartbeat, lowers blood sugar
148
pinna
aka auricle
ear lobes
very flexible
made of elastic cartilage
149
external auditory canal
external auditory meatus
| made of cartilaginous tissue
150
tympanic memebrane
eardrum
151
otitis externa
an infection in the OUTER portion of the ear
152
ossicles
three very small bones
malleus (hammer)
incus (anvil)
stapes (stirrup)
153
eustachian tube
auditory tube
| goes fromm the middle of the ear to the back of the throat and allows air into the ear
154
otitis media
an infection of the middle ear
155
bony labyrinth
osseous labyrinth
makes up the rigid, bony outer wall of the inner ear
part of the skull and consists of three parts (vestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea)
156
semicircular canals
three loops in 3 planes (X, Y, Z)
| plays a very important role in balance
157
cochlea
looks like a seashell
| important role in hearing
158
membranous labyrinth
made of a collection of tubes and chambers that contain the receptors for the sensations of balance and hearing
found within the bony labyrinth
159
endolymph
endo means within
fluid that flows within the membranous labyrinth
gives the feeling of motion
when standing up, sitting down, or bending over its the flow of the endolymph that triggers the nervous system to tell you "my head is tilted"
160
perilymph
peri means around
found between the bony and membranous labyrinths within the temporal bones of the skull
the same thing as cerebrospinal (CSF) fluid
161
oval window
the stapes bone attaches to this membrane which is the entrance to the inner ear
162
otitis interna
an infection of the inner ear
163
encephalitis
which is an infection of the cerebrospinal fluid
164
meninges
protective coverings around brain and spinal cord
dura mater
arachnoid layer
pia mater
165
dura mater
outermost layer; thick, tough, whitish connective tissue
166
arachnoid layer
middle layer; spiderweb-like you may see some of it between the ridges of the brain
167
pia mater
innermost layer; tightly adhered to the brain
168
spaces betweent he meninges
subdural space
| subarachnoid space
169
three major structural sections of the brain
cerebrum
cerebellum
brain stem
170
cerebrum
the largest, anterior portion with gyri (ridges) and sulci (grooves)
memory storage and processing
conscious and subconscious action/movement of skeletal muscles
high brain function (such as thoughts, decisions, ideas)
171
cerebellum
coordinates compplex somatic motor patterns
| control of balance, posture, speech
172
brain stem
pons: relays sensory information to the cerebellum/thalamus and subconscious somatic and viscera motor centers
medulla oblongata: relays sensory informatoin to thalamus and to other of the brain stem and autonomic centers for regulation of visceral function (cardiovascular, rsepiratory, and digestive system activites)
173
cerebral cortex
outer portion of the cerebrum
"cortex" means bark or rind
thick, much folded, and wrinkled sheets of brain tissue which covers the surfaces of the two cerebral hemispheres (L and R)
174
septum pellucidum
covers the lateral ventricle, separating it into two sections
175
superior colliculi
involved in vision reflexes
176
inferior colliculi
involved in hearing reflexes
177
corpus callosum
a cross-section of nerve tracks that goes from one side of the brain to the other
178
thalamus
a "relay" center
179
hypothalamus
is actually a "region" below the thalamus where the pituitary would attach
180
optic chiasma
a whitish crisscross-crossing of the optic nerves
181
pineal gland
also called epithalamus
| a little round body at the back of the corpus callosum
182
arbor vitae
in cerebellum
"tree of life" gray matter (nerve cell bodies) is on the outside and white matter (mylenated nerve fibers/axons) on the inside also called the medullary body
183
macula
an oval area at the center of the retina in the back of the eye
responsible for sharp, detailed central vision (aka visual acuity)
184
foves
located in the very center of the macula
| cone cells are here that give the sharpest image
185
optic disc
the point where the nerve cell axons leave the eye
| no rods or cones=blind spot
