Prejudice And Discrimination Flashcards
(124 cards)
1
Q
Three-component attitude model
A
An attitude consists of three components: emphasizing thought, feeling and acting as essential to human experience
- cognitive
Beliefs about a group - affective
Strong and usually negative feeling about a group and the qualities they are supposed/believed to have - behavior
The intentions to behave/act in a certain way towards a group (not actual act)
2
Q
Backlash
A
Women get criticized and rejected if they promote themselves
Are denied competence in male-stereotypical area (eg. job market)
3
Q
Prevention focus
A
Negative emotion-related bias towards outgroup
4
Q
Stigma
A
Group attributes that transfer negative social evaluation of people who belong to the group
Stigmatised groups are the targets of prejudice and discrimination
5
Q
J-curve model
A
Graphical figure: shows how relative deprivation arises when attainment/achievements fall short of expectations
6
Q
Cooperative goal relation
A
Non-zero sum
7
Q
Sexual minorities
A
LGBTQ community victims/targets of prejudice and discrimination around the world
Only 1973 American Psychatric Association removed homosexuality from list of mental disorders
Advances: lesbian/gay pride celebrations, same sex marriage legal in many countries
Still: remain stigmatised, subtle forms of discrimination
8
Q
Discrimination
A
Prejudice are based on negative stereotypes of groups and this turns out to aggression towards outgroup
Attitude-behavior relationship
can cause violence and even genocide
9
Q
genocide
A
Ultimative expression of prejudice by exterminating a whole social group
(eg.poverty, relative deprivation, cyclical violence)
10
Q
Instrumental goals
A
Short-term negative emotions
EG. Fear/anger
Instrumental value to the group
11
Q
Social changes belief system
A
Ingroup boundarities are impermeable
No cognitive alternatives
=Social competition with dominant group as the only strategy to improve social identity
Social creativity
=Group-based behavioral strategies to improve social identity
Without DIRECT attacking dominants group‘s position
Social competition
=Group-based behavioral strategies to improve social identity
Directly confronting dominant group‘s position
12
Q
Detecting racism:
Social distance
A
How close people are willing to get to eachother
Racist attitudes persist even in close social distance
Racist would go to same school with ethnicity but not marry
13
Q
Emergent norm theory
A
Collective behavior is regulated by norms based on distinctive behavior that arises in initially normales crowd
Self-awareness is very low in crowds
14
Q
Commons dilemma ‚tragedy of the common‘
A
A number of individuals/groups exploit a limited resource
Cooperation by all benefits all
Competition by all harms all
15
Q
Implicit association test (IAT)
A
Reaction-time test to measure attitudes that people might conceal
Rich indicator:
Words we use, non-verbal communication channel (underlying emotions and prejudices)
16
Q
Mental illness as a stigma
A
Less improvement
Brings shame over family (cultures of honour)
Dehumanization: Label mad, justify discrimination, „different=mad“
17
Q
Collective guilt
A
Arises if people feel responsible for group‘s blameworthy actions
18
Q
Coping with social dilemmas
A
Difficult to solve: people behave in a selfish way and fail to trust eachothers
1. Structural solutions
Requires powerful authority to implement measures (eg. limit carbon emissions)
- strong group identification
People act in ways that benefit the group rather than themselves
Improves communictaion to build trust and develop norms
19
Q
Relative deprivation
A
Sense of having less than we are entitled to, feeling to deserve more
Under conditions of relative deprevation people feel frustrated and this frustration can lead to aggression
20
Q
Fraternalistic relative deprivation
A
We compare ourselves with dissimilar others/members of a group
Social unrest=
Demonstrations, collective protests
21
Q
Bookkeeping
A
Favorable information about outgroup could improve stereotypes
22
Q
Positive intergroup distinctiveness
A
Provides member with favorable social identity
Basic human motivation for self-enhancement and to elevate self-esteem
Uncertainty reduction=group provides structure and clearer sense of self
Automatically defines our relationship with ingroup/outgroup members
We tend to identify more with extreme groups, if our uncertainty is intense
23
Q
3 forms/types of behavior that illustrate underlying prejudice
A
- Reluctance to help
- Tokenism
- Reverse discrimination
24
Q
Prejudice
A
an unfavorable attitude towards a social group and its members
part of human condition
Social psychological problem
Often based on stereotypes to justify prejudice/discrimination against an outgroup
25
Role congruity theory
Observers behave negatively when people behave inconsistent with heir role expectation
EG. Women as poor leaders=inconsistency with peoples schemas of effective leadership
26
Different roles men and women occupy in society
Men:
Competent and independent „but maybe not so nice“
Agency-based structural power
EG. Businessman, macho-man
27
Social protest
Response to relative deprivation
To achieve social change
Study of social protest is complex (psychology, sociology, political science)
28
Conversion
Counter-stereotypical information could cause sudden attitude change
29
Miller and colleague: Link between frustration and aggression
1. frustration can but does not has to lead to aggression
2. can be powerful=show aggression in an overt way, powerless= more indirectly
3. a series of small frustrations can increase probability of aggression
30
Stereotype content model on people with handicaps
Warm but incompetent
31
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Stigmatised groups know about negative stereotypes others have of them
People worry that their behavior confirms societal prejudices and have more anxiety, negative thoughts
Even behave in ways that fulfil others expectations
32
New racism
Conflict between emotional antipathy towards racial outgroup
modern values to behave in non-prejudiced manner
Stereotypes have changed, but not disappeared, people represent/express racism differently and in new forms
33
Bargaining (Handeln)
Process of intergroup conflict resolution
Representatives reach agreements by direct negotiation
When people bargain about own group=do it less compromisingly and are not easily satisfied with compromises
Bargaining often a way to remain status quo
34
Benevolent (wohlwollend) sexism
Not as obvious as hostile sexism
Different attitudes/reactions towards:
Traditional women: attraction/protection
Non-traditional women (eg. career women: hostility, domination, competition)
35
Genocide
Most extreme form of legitimized prejudice
Systematically extinguish targeted group (eg. killing fields)
More indirectly
Create conditions of disadvantage/hunger
36
Minimal group paradigm
Effect of categorization (same group membership) stronger than sharing the same beliefs
37
Collective behavior and the crowd
Behavior of people en Masse
EG. Protest, football games
Crowds produce primitive and homogenous behavior because:
Members are anonymous and lose their personal responsibility
People are able to release unconscious antisocial motives = Deindividuation
38
Non-normative collective action
Violence and dehumanization =anger, contempt
39
2. Tokenism
Token=small positive act towards members of minority groups
To not engage in more meaningful acts to help
Can even activate stereotypes
EG. Token employment of minorities to keep positive image (but no important steps for equality)
Damage self esteem of employed token minorities
40
Sexism
Prejudice and discrimination against people based on their gender
Women are the most common victims of sexism and occupy a lower position than men in many points
EG buisness, government, employment
41
Self-categorization
Produces ingroup normative behavior
42
Free rider effect
Gaining all the benefits from group membership without making costly obligations of membership
Other members have to carry the costs (eg. public goods dilemma)
„Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all“ -when self-interest goes against collective good=competition and resource destruction
43
3. Reverse discrimination
Extreme form of tokenism
Favor minority group to conceal prejudices and appear tolerant
For beneficial effects but only in short term
Cognitive dissonance point of view
To change attitude in line with behavior
self-perception theory
Challenge: distinguish between reverse discrimination and attempts to actually improve situation of minorities
44
Extended contact effect
Knowing about ingroup member who shares close relationship with outgroup member
Can improve own attitude towards outgroup
45
More subtle forms of racism
```
More subtle forms
Aversive racism
Modern racism
Symbolic racism
Regressive racism
Ambivalent racism
```
46
Dogmatism and closed-mindedness
Related to authoritarianism, deals with personality predispositions
Cognitive style
Intolerant and predisposes people to be prejudiced
Resistant to change existing beliefs
Often people politically on the right wing
47
Frustration-aggression hypothesis (John Dollard and colleagues 1939)
All frustration leads to aggression and all aggression comes from frustration
Psychodynamic assumption
We only have a fixed amount of psychic energy available to perform psychological activities
We need psychic energy to achieve our goals (goal achievement=release)
Goal achievement frustrated, psychic energy remains activated
Unbalance can only be corrected by aggression
48
Intergroup differentiation
Behavior that emphasizes differences between our own group and other groups
49
Integrated threat model
Four sources of fear and anxiety:
1. realistic threat
Sense of threat to existence of one‘s own group, well-being, political power
2. symbolic threat
Threat posed by outgroup to ones values, beliefs, morals and norms
3. intergroup anxiety
Threat to self, experienced during intergroup interactions
4. negative stereotypes
Fear of intergroup anxiety based on negative stereotypes of outgroup
50
Social mobility belief system
Possibility to move from lower status to higher in order to improve social identity
intergroup boundarities are permeable
51
Four generational stereotypes (Susan Mitchell 2002) of Ageism
1. traditionalists (born 1925-1945)
rule followers, hard working, respectful to authority
2. baby boomers (born 1946-1960)
Optimistic, abitousm value teamwork, workaholic
3. generation X (born between 1961-1980)
Skeptical, self reliant risk takers, balance work and personal life
4. millennials/Generation Y (born between 1981-1999)
hopeful, value work that is meaningful, diversity and change in society, good knowledge in technology
Internet generation
Common term for people born since 1990s („Always on“ Generation
Characteristics: multi-tankers, limited patience, lack of deep thinking ability
52
Competitive goal relation
zero-sum
53
Ingroup bias/favoritism strategy
People identify with groups to reduce feelings of uncertainty
54
Attributional ambiguity
More mistrust/suspicion in social interaction
Attribute own success to affirmative action, tokenism, reverse discrimination
Underattribute negative reactions to prejudice
55
Stereotype threats
Stereotype lift
Threat: EG. Women and mathematics, men as poor communicators
Lift: Attract favorable societal stereotypes
56
Right-wing authoritarianism
Authoritarianism as collection of attitudes with three components
1. conventialism=Follow societal norms by established authorities
2. authoritarian aggression = Support aggression towards targets of discrimination
2. authoritarian submission= Submission to established authorities
57
Subtyping
Stereotype-inconsistent information could produce subtypes
Outgroup stereotype becomes more complex
58
Mere exposure effect
People’s attitude improves through repetition and familiarity with stimuli
„Get used to it“
59
Egoistic relative deprivation
We compare ourselves with similar others and feel that we have less than we should have
Personal stress
60
Glass ceiling
Phenomenon, that still women find it more difficult to get a top leadership position
61
Collective shame
If people feel that actions do not reflect on their group image and were not under their control
62
System justification theory
People would even protect an existing social system if it maintains their own position of disadvantage
Due to uncertainty, fear to challenge status quo
Criticism: Situational factors, intergroup contexts, identity plays a more important role
63
Face-ism
Represent men in media with greater focus on their head
focusing more on the body of the women
View: physical appearance is more important than intellectual capacity
64
Realistic conflict theory (Sherif)
Goal relations between groups explain intergroup behavior
Shared goals=Superordinate goals, can be used to improve conflicts between communities/nations
Require group formation, solidarity cooperation, intergroup harmony
Mutually exclusive goals =
Interpersonal competition
Intergroup conflict, reduced group solidarity
Problem: Is it really the nature of goal relation that determines intergroup behavior?
65
Social categorization
Classifies people as members of different social groups
People who are not categorized usually show less discrimination
66
Minimal group paradigm
Investigation on the effect of social categorization alone on behavior
67
Cognitive dissonance resolution model
| On racism
Resolution achieved by avoidance/denial of racism
Deny to be prejudiced and to avoid to talk about race
Still: opposition to means to address racial disadvantage (eg. affirmative action)
68
Intergroup emotions theory (Mackie & Smith)
We evaluate wether a situation is going to harm/benefit our group
Wether is produces positive feelings towards ingroup/negative feelings towards outgroup
Outgroup emotions can translate into discrimination/prejudiced behavior
Ingroup emotions can enhance solidarity and group cohesiveness
The stronger we identify with a group, the stronger our feelings for the group
69
Collective narcissm
Most extreme response
Group develops strong sense of group-centered behavior such as ethnocentrism
70
Language
Use more masculine pronouns and words talking about people in general
Terms such as ´houswife`maintain roles
Need for change in words we use habitually and clear guidelines of non-sexist use in language
71
Intergroup behavior
Any perception, cognition or behavior influenced by people recognizing that they are members of distinct social groups
Real/perceived reactions between social groups
Can have huge effects on behavior of group members
72
Social dominance theory
Extend to which people accept/reject societal ideologies that legitimize hierarchy and discrimination or equality
High social dominance orientation
Low social dominance orientation
= More/less willing to accept hierarchy/discrimination
Humans (HSD) that have a desire for ingroup domination over outgroups
Protect hierarchy
More willing to exploit environment
73
Dehumanization
Deny peoples human uniqueness and human nature
74
Controllable stigmas
People are believed to be responsible for being in the way they are
EG. Smoking, overweight, homosexual
Stigma less controllable than people think
More extreme discrimination
75
Prescriptive stereotypes
Describe how elderly should behave (conform stereotypes)
76
Decision theory/game theory/utility theory (Neumann and Morgenstern)
Model for analyzing situations where people are in conflict over non-trivial outcomes
77
Evolutionary account
Stigmatization as an adaptive cognitive process to avoid poor social exchange partners
78
Racism
Prejudice and discrimination against people based on their ethnicity/race
Historically: negative stereotypes of white people about black people (slavery, exploitation, apartheid)
79
Infra-humanization
Attribute positive characteristics more to ingroup than outgroup members („more“ vs „less“ human)
80
Hedonic goals
Support pleasant and decrease unpleasant group-based emotions
EG. Pride/guilt
81
Arbitration (Enscheidung)
Neutral third party is invited to impose a mutually binding settlement
When conflict got really out of control
82
Reasons why stigmas persist
Self-evaluative advantage
By making downward comparisons to stigmatised outgroups
Justification function
Of inequalities, remain status quo
Stigmatise outgroups
To keep world view and controllability over their life
83
Dehumanization
Often associated with prejudice=
| to see people as less than human
84
Stigmatized individuals
believed to have characteristics/attributes that represent social identity that is devalued in society
Disadvantages
Restricted access to resources (eg. education/health)
Hard to achieve high societal standards
85
Concealable stigmas
People have the possibility to avoid experience of prejudice (eg. homosexuality, ideologies)
Cost of concealment can be high (be untrue to yourself)
86
Communication and negotiation (=Vermittlung)
Communicating directly about conflict and trying to resolve it
Often difficulties for negotiators to take over the perspective of the other person
87
Belief congruence
Our belief system plays a major role whether we like others or not
Even more important to attitude than race
Congruence=Similar beliefs lead to attraction and positive attitudes
Incongruence=Denies validity of our beliefs and produces negative attitudes
Prejudice as a reaction if we perceive a lack of belief congruence
Criticism Plays no role when prejudice is socially sanctionised
More an explanation, that belief similarity produces interpersonal attraction than prejudice
88
Scapegoat
Individual/group that serves as target for frustration
Shift aggression to weaker person
Displacement
Transfer negative feelings to other individual/group than which originally caused negative feelings
89
Essentialism
Consider attributes of a group as inborn, constant and fix (nationalism: Jews as rats)
90
Superordinate goals
A common enemy can only improve relations temporarily, especially in case of failure
Existence of shared goals could reduce intergroup hostility and conflict
91
Example: experiment by Sam Gaertener and Jack Dovidio 1977 „Bystander apathy as a function of race of victim“
Revealed underlying prejudices, white women more willing to help black victim than white victim when there was a „two potentially helpers condition“
92
Human uniqueness
Distinguishes humans from animals due to heir higher cognitions
93
The trucking game
Two participants play a game where they work for separate trucking companies
Can use own private roads, but there is also much shorter shared route (with disadvantage of having a one-line section)
Mistrust again produces suboptimal shared outcome
Homo oeconomicus
Rational characterization of human kind
Western thinking about work and identity
94
Mediation (Vermittlung)
Neutral third party intervenes in negotiation process
Mediators should have power and be impartial (unparteiisch)
Reduce emotional heat and help to find a good compromise for both parties
95
Gender
Sex-stereotypical attributes of a person
Reasons why sex-stereotypes persist: assigning roles according to gender
EG. Homemaker considered as more feminine
Men have more sociopolitical power
difficult for women to gain access to higher-status masculine jobs
96
Ambivalent sexism inventory
Attitudes towards women depend on dimensions
97
Physical/mental handicap
Long past, but now overt discrimination illegal and seen as socially unacceptable
Advances: special requirements for people with physical disabilities eg. ramps for wheelchairs, Paralympics for normalisation
People are insecure how to handle handicapped people
Unintentional produce negative attitudes, speech and behavior, emphasize handicap
98
Stereotype content model
Competence and warmth/sociability as the main dimensions people organize their perceptions on
99
Detecting racism:
Automatic cognition
People have little control over stereotype
Generated automatically by categorization
Often unconscious
Categorization arises from
Category primes face, accent in language
EG. Preconscious primes
Positive words more quickly associated with white than black
100
Ageism
Stereotypes that are age-related or generational
101
Targets of discrimination
Prejudice knows no cultural/historical boundaries
But: some groups are enduring/stable victims of prejudice
Formed by social categorization that are
vivid
omnipresent (allgegenwärtig)
socially functional
Target groups occupy lower positions in society
Groups based on race, ethnicity, sex, age, sexual orientation, psychically/mental health
102
Glass cliff
Women get placed in a crisis-leadership role and have to deal with criticism, are doomed to failure
103
Psychological salience
Salience as an interactive function
Chronic and situational accessibility
Structural and normative fit
104
Four factors (from fraternalistic deprivation to competitive intergroup behavior)
1. identify strongly with group
2. feeling that engagement could bring social change
3. injustice as a motivation for intergroup protest
4. making ingroup-outgroup comparisons
105
Broveman and colleagues (1970) „women not considered as healthy individuals“
Experiment where participant reflected competence for healthy adult person or healthy adult men
Healthy adult women: more submissive, excitable and appearance-oriented
106
Uncontrollable stigma
People are believed to have little choice over their stigma (eg. race, sex, illnesses
107
Collective self
In group contexts, harm to ingroup is translated in self-harn and this leads to negative emotions towards outgroups
108
4. steps of social movement participation
1. become sympathisier (deprivation and us vs them orientation)
2. be informed about what can be done and is being done
3. develop motivation to participate (outcome must be valuable to you/important others)
Collective motivation
Normative motivation
Reward motivation
4. overcome barriers to participate (eg. transportation/health)
109
Self-stereotyping
Causes us to behave like group members
110
Different roles men/women occupy in society
2. women
Women:
Communal-based/interpersonal power
Warm and expressive
EG. Housewife, sexy women, career women, feminist, athlete, lesbian
Organized on warmth and competence
111
Affirmative action (Frauenquote)
Increased representation of women in positions where they have been discriminated/historically underrepresented
(eg. management , government)
112
Linguistic intergroup bias effect
Concrete language when talking about positive ingroup/negative outgroup characteristics
General/abstract terms when talking about negative outgroup/positive ingroup characteristics eg. peoples prejudices
113
Human nature
Features of humanity: emotionality, warmth
Denied: machines/cold
114
Conciliation (Schlichtung)
Process: groups make cooperative gestures to one another
Hope to avoid escalation of conflict
More effective alternative
115
1. Reluctance to help
Passively/actively fail to help/assist groups in society
They remain disadvantages
Strategy used by individuals, organizations, society as a whole
Can be sign of aversive racism, racial anxiety, antipathy
Mostly when people are around
Bystander effect
116
Minimal intergroup categorization
Produces ethnocentrism and competitive intergroup behavior
Gan generate ingroup bias at the implicit level
117
Promotion focus
Positive emotion-related bias toward ingroup
118
Visible stigmas
Experience of prejudice can‘t be escaped (directly visible eg. race, gender)
119
Authoritarian (autoritär) personality (Theodor Adoms and Else Frenkel-Brunswik 1950)
Personality syndrome
People have already been predisposed to be prejudiced and authoritarian in childhood
Child-rearing practices: Responsible for clustered of beliefs later in adulthood
Personality explanation of prejudice
Pessimistic view on human nature
Suspicious of democracy
Conservative political/economic attitudes
120
Different explanations of success/failure
Performance viewed as more/less deserving/recognized
Men: Linked to ability/high level of effort
Women: Attributed to luck/easy task
Exemptions: Attention directed away from person on to behavior
Women seen as more deserving if they succeed in traditional masculine activitie (eg. become top manager)
121
Normative collective action
Peaceful protest = action-focused constructive emotion
122
Overt discrimination
Less common than subtile and hidden discrimination
123
Prisoner‘s dilemma
Game for two persons, both parties have to decide between competition and cooperation
Both win/lose depending on mutual choices, suspicion, lack of trust
124
Prejudices are learnt early in childhood
Ethic biases
Little knowledge about culture but clear preferences
Parental modeling
Notice parents racial expressions
Instrumental/operant conditioning
Parents approve/reward racist behavior
Classical conditioning
EG. Blame child for playing with Asian child
