Presidents Chapter Flashcards
Ordinance of 1785
Ordinance of 1785 provided for the rectangular land survey of the Old Northwest. Daniel
Elazar called the rectangular survey has been called “the largest single act of national planning in
our history and the most significant in terms of continuing impact on the body politic”.
When was the first “model tenement” built in manhattan?
1855
1862 Homestead Act
Homestead Act opened lands of the Public Domain to settlers for a nominal fee and five years
residence.
1864 New York Council of Hygiene of the Citizens Association
1864 New York Council of Hygiene of the Citizens Association mounts a campaign to raise housing
and sanitary standards.
Saul Alinsky
Born in 1909, Alinsky is best known for his work as a community organizer and
writer. His organizing started when he worked part time with the Congress of Industrial
Organizations. Eventually, he moved from labor organizing to community organizing where he
focused on improving the living conditions and city services for those in poor communities.
Alinsky is the author of Rules for Radicals, published in 1971.
Ernest Burgess
Burgess was an urban sociologist with the University of Chicago. With his
colleague, Robert Park, he developed the concentric zone model in 1925 which depicts land use in
a series of rings including the central business district, residential zone, and others. This model
was discussed in the 1925 book he authored, The City.
Peter Calthorpe
Calthorpe, born in 1949, is an urban planner, urban designer and architect.
He is known for developing the concept of Transit Oriented Development in The Next American
Metropolis, as well as for focusing on sustainability. He was the founder and first president of the
Congress for New Urbanism.
Rachel Carson
Carson (1907-1964), was a marine biologist, a conservationist, and author. She started her career at the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, and later, she transitioned to writing full time. In
1962, Silent Spring, was published which focused on pesticides and the environment. The book is
credited to helping to launch the environmental movement.
Walter Christaller
A German geographer, born in 1893, Christaller developed the Central Place
Theory after studying settlement patterns in southern Germany. The Central Place Theory,
published in 1933, attempts to explain the size and distribution of cities.
Andres Duany
Born in 1949, Duany is an architect and planner. He is known for his work on
sustainable urban development and new urbanism. Duany is recognized as the designer for
Seaside, Florida and the Traditional Neighborhood Development zoning ordinance. He founded
the Congress for New Urbanism
Joel Garreau
Garreau is a journalist and author born in 1948. He wrote the book, Edge City: Life on the New Frontier, which was published in 1991, and where the term Edge City was the made
popular. Garreau was also a reporter and editor with The Washington Post.
Patrick Geddes
Geddes was a Scottish biologist and planner born in 1854. He is known for his innovative thinking and coined two key ideas—the concept of “region” to the architectural and planning fields and the term conurbation (an extended urban area consisting of several towns merging with the suburbs of one or more cities). Because of this, Geddes is known as the “Father of Regional Planning”. He authored Cities in Evolution (1915).
Jean Gottmann
A French geographer born in 1915, Gottmann spent time in France and the
United States. In 1961, he published the book Megalopolis, where he described the northeastern
United States from Boston to Washington D.C. as one metropolitan area.
Ebenezer Howard
Howard was born in London in 1850. He founded the Garden City
movement where he felt that people should be exposed to both the city and the countryside. This
came in response to how cities were being developed at the time—industrial, sprawling, pollution
and no green space. Two garden cities, Welwyn and Letchworth were built by Howard in England
in the early 1900’s based upon the principles of the Garden City. He is the author of Tomorrow: A
Peaceful Path to Real Reform, which is now known as Garden Cities of Tomorrow.
Jane Jacobs
Born in 1916, Jacobs is known for her work as a journalist and author. In 1961, her book, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, was published. The book, based upon Jacobs’
own experiences and observations, looked at urban planning and principles happening in the 1950’s
which she felt led to the decline of cities.
Norman Krumholz
Krumholz is a professor at Cleveland State University, and prior to that
time he practiced planning in Ithaca, Pittsburgh and Cleveland. He also served as President of the
American Planning Association. Krumholz is known for his work and publications around equity
planning.
Le Corbusier
A pioneer of modern architecture, Le Corbusier was born in 1887 in Switzerland. He was also influential in urban planning, in particular with his vision of an ideal city—the Radiant
City. The Radiant City envisioned superblocks and delineated between different uses such as
housing, factories, and businesses.
George Pullman
Known for his work designing and manufacturing the Pullman railroad car,
Pullman who was born in 1831, created the town of Pullman. Located just south of Chicago, the
town of Pullman was built for factory employees and contained housing, churches shopping and
parks. In the end, the town of Pullman did not succeed because of the desire of the town to make
money like a private business. The town is now incorporated into the City of Chicago.
Edward Ullman
Ullman was an American geographer born in 1912. In 1945, with Chauncy
Harris, Ullman created the Multiple Nuclei Model. The model said that outside of the central
business district, there are other smaller nodes of economic activity which then acts as a growth
point.
William Whyte
Born in 1917, Whyte spent time studying behavior of people in urban spaces. The observations led to the “Street Life Project” which looked at pedestrians and city dynamics. The
Project for Public Places, a nonprofit organization, is based upon Whyte’s work.
Frank Lloyd Wright
Best known as an architect, Wright also contributed to the planning
industry with his Broadacre City vision. Wright’s Broadacre City vision was introduced in 1932 and
focused on low density cities away from urban areas. Technological changes such as the automobile
and telephone, made such a vision possible.
Catherine Wurster
Wurster, a member of the “housers”, was an advocate for affordable
housing and improving housing for low income households. She wrote Modern Housing in 1934,
and later was an author of the Housing Act of 1937 and advisor for five presidents. Later she went
on to become an educator.
Hippodamus
Hippodamus is known as the Father of urban planning. As an ancient Greek urban planner, he developed the Hippodamian Plan or grid plan.
Sanitary Reform & Public Health Movement
The Sanitary Reform and Public Health
Movement began in the mid 1800’s as urbanization was happening at a rapid rate. The goal was to
prevent the spread of infectious diseases and epidemics.
Settlement Housing Movement
A social movement in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the
Settlement Housing Movement’s goal was to create a connectedness between the rich and the poor.
Settlement Workers, often from the middle class, would live and volunteer their time in settlement
houses. The most famous Settlement House in the United States was Chicago’s Hull House founded
by Jane Addams in 1889.
Garden Cities
The Garden City movement was an idea from Sir
Ebenezer Howard in the late 1800s. The concept of this planned
community of 32,000 people was that it would be self-contained with
residential, industry and agriculture and then surrounded by green space.
The cities would then be linked by roads and railways back to a center city.
Letchworth, England was the first Garden City constructed beginning in
1903.
City Beautiful
Introduced on a large scale for the first time at the World’s Columbian Exposition in 1893 by Daniel Burnham,
the City Beautiful movement’s intent was to beautify cities, promote social order and encourage civic pride. The McMillan Plan of 1902 updated L’Enfant’s Plan for Washington D.C. and designed the parks and monuments in the city. Other successes of the City Beautiful movement include
Chicago and Cleveland.
City Efficient
The City Efficient movement focused on brining technical details of city planning
(such as engineers, attorneys and others) forward rather than focusing on architects. The City
Efficient movement also replaced the City Beautiful movement when resources needed to go to
public works projects to support the automobile rather than civic buildings.
City formation theories
In the early
1900s, urbanists and others were observing
cities and explaining their patterns in
different theories. Theories such as the
concentric ring, sector, and multiple nuclei
attempt to explain how cities were organized
in a simplied way.
Broadacre City
The Broadacre City is a
Frank Lloyd Wright concept presented in his 1932 book The Disappearing City. The concept in
this low density community is that each family would be given one acre of land, and the surrounding
community would have some office and apartments, as well as a train station. The automobile would be the dominant form of transportation.
City Humane & the New Deal
The City Humane movement arose in the 1930s following The
Great Depression. The purpose of the City Humane movement was to focus on jobs and housing.
City Functional
The City Functional movement was prominent in the 1940s. It focused on
functionalism and administrative efficiency.
Urban Renewal & Housing Acts
From the 1930s until the 1960s, Congress enacted a series of
housing acts that aimed at accomplishing a variety of things including funding to build more public
housing and financing for slum clearance and urban renewal programs.
Post War Suburbia
Prior to World War II, only about 13% of Americans lived in suburbs, which
jumped to approximately 50% by 2010. A lot of the migration came just after World War II, when
there was a shortage of housing and when people wanted to live outside of the city. While
residential development was migrating to the suburbs, jobs, retailers and others began to follow.
The Great Society
Led by President Lyndon Johnson in the mid 1960s, The Great Society focused
on programs that help eliminate poverty and racial injustice. Programs developed during this time
addressed issues on education, poverty and transportation.
Image of the City
A 1960 book by Kevin Lynch, The Image of the City, studied how people observe
the city and then make mental maps based upon it. Lynch then concludes that mental maps are
based on five elements including paths, edges, district, nodes and landmarks.
Advocacy and Equity Planning
Advocacy and equity planning began in the 1960’s with Paul
Davidoff as a key contributor. The model discusses the inequities in the political system and that
the goal was to make sure all people are represented in the planning process.
New Towns
Developed from the Garden City Movement, New Towns were planned communities
developed after World War II with a focus on moving the population away from the city into a new
town. Examples of New Towns in the United States include Reston, Virginia and Columbia,
Maryland. Other examples exist throughout Europe and Asia.
Smart Growth
Smart growth theory focuses on development that is compact and has a mix of
uses to prevent sprawl and encourage sustainability. Some of the earliest discussions on smart
growth were in the early 1970s.
Edge Cities
Edge cities are a phenomenon of the growth of the automobile. Edge cities were
primarily residential or agricultural areas before, but have developed into areas with more
businesses and jobs than residents. Tysons Corner, Virginia is one example of an edge city. The
term edge cities was coined in 1991 by Joel Garreau in Edge City: Life on the New Frontier.
Environmental Justice
Dating back to the 1980s, environmental justice focuses on making sure
that environmental burdens, as well as benefits are equally distributed. Environmental justice
relates to laws, regulations and policies and ensures that all people are treated fairly.
Back to the City Movement
In the 1950s and 1960s, many urban areas began to see population
decline as people, mainly the middle class, moved to the suburbs; however, since about 2000, the
number of upper income people moving back into the city or core areas have increased rapidly.
Sustainability
Sustainability is a broad term, but generally, most look at it as programs, processes
or other that are not being harmful to the environment. According to a 1987 United Nations report,
sustainability when thinking about urban planning is “development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.
New Urbanism
Arising in the 1980’s, the New Urbanism movement focused on walkable
neighborhoods, interconnected land uses, sustainability, and creating a sense of place. Seaside,
Florida was constructed in 1981 as the first New Urbanist town.
When was the first major tenement law?
1867 First major tenement house law (New York) restricting physical conditions.
When and where did land use zoning begin in the US?
1867 San Francisco prohibits specific obnoxious uses in certain districts–beginning of land-use
zoning in U.S.
When was the “dumbbell tenement” debuted?
1879 A form of multifamily housing widely built in New York,
and notorious for poor living conditions (lack of light, air, space).
Pullman Illinois
1880-84 Building of Pullman, Illinois, a model industrial town by
George Pullman.
How the Other Half Lives
1890, by Jacob Riis is published; a powerful stimulus to housing and neighborhood reform.
World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago
1893 . A source of the City
Beautiful Movement and of the urban planning profession.
Tomorrow A Peaceful Path to Real Reform
1898 Ebenezer Howard publishes Tomorrow A Peaceful Path to Real Reform, start of the
Garden City movement. Reissued in 1902 as Garden Cities of Tomorrow.
When was the first law restricting the height of buildings?
1899 First state court support of ordinance/act restricting heights of buildings.
District of Columbia
1901 New York State Tenement House Law
which is the legislative basis for the revision of city
codes that outlawed tenements such as the “Dumbbell Tenement.”
Letchworth
1903 Letchworth, the first English Garden City, is constructed. This is
a stimulus to the New Town movement in America.
Cleveland Plan of 1903
First local “civic center” plan developed for Cleveland, by Daniel
H. Burnham.
Where and when was the first application of City Beautiful to a major US city?
1906 Daniel Burnham’s Plan for San Francisco and the first
application of “City Beautiful” principles to a major American city.
First comprehensive city survey
1907, Pittsburgh.
First official, local, and permanent planning board
1907, Hartford, Connecticut.
First National Conference on City Planning
1909, Washington, D.C.
First American use of zoning to restrict future development
1909, Los Angeles
First State Enabling Act
1909, Wisconsin
First metropolitan regional plan in the U.S.
1909 Plan of Chicago by Daniel Burnham
First major American textbook on planning
Carrying Out the City Plan, 1913 Flavel Shurtleff
First private planning consulting firm
Technical Advisory Corporation, 1913, located in New
York City and created by George B. Ford and Earnest P. Goodrich.
First state to institute mandatory referral of subdivision plats
1913, New Jersey
First state to make planning mandatory for local governments
1913, Massachusetts
First full-time municipally employed planner
Harland Bartholomew, 1914, hired in Newark, NJ
First state to institute extraterritorial mandatory referral of subdivision plats.
1915, California
Cities in Evolution
1915 Patrick Geddes, a foundation for regional planning theory.
When was the The National Park Service established
1916
The nation’s first comprehensive zoning resolution adopted
1916, by New York City Board of
Estimates under the leadership of George McAneny and Edward Bassett.
Planning of the Modern City
1916 Nelson P. Lewis
First federal-aid highway act
1916
First regional functional authority plan adopted
by the Miami Conservancy District, Ohio, 1916
When was American City Planning
Institute founded?
1917
Who was the first president of the American City Planning
Institute, forerunner of the American Institute of Planners and the American Institute of Certified
Planners.
1917, Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr.
Boston Metropolitan District Commission
1919 Three regional authorities-Metropolitan Sewerage Commission, Metropolitan Water Board and
Metropolitan Park Commission combine to form the Boston Metropolitan District Commission.
First parkway in America completed
1919, Bronx River Parkway, New York
first statewide citizens organization in support of planning
1919 Ohio Planning Conference
first historic preservation
commission in the U.S.
1921 New Orleans designates the Vieux Carre Commission
first bi-state functional authority
1921 The Port of New York Authority
Inauguration of Regional Plan of New York
1922, Thomas Adams
When was the Los Angeles County Regional Planning Commission is created?
1922
First suburban auto-oriented shopping center
1922, “County Club Plaza” in Kansas City, Missouri is constructed.
Standard State Zoning Enabling Act
1924 U.S. Department of Commerce issued
first major American city to endorse a comprehensive plan.
1925 Cincinnati, Ohio, becomes first major American city to endorse a comprehensive plan. Later
it was adopted by the planning board.
“Concentric Zone” model
1925 Ernest Burgess
First public subsidy for housing
1926, developed in the state of New York
Village of Euclid v. Amber Realty Co.
1926 Supreme Court upholds constitutionality of comprehensive zoning
Standard City Planning Enabling Act
1928 U.S. Department of Commerce
The Regional Survey of New York and Its Environs
1929, by Clarence Perry is published.
National Land Utilization Conference
1931, is convened in Chicago where three hundred agricultural experts deliberate on rural recovery programs and natural resource conservation.
When did the New Deal begin
1933
Federal Emergency Relief Administration
1933 Federal Emergency Relief Administration is set up under Harry Hopkins.
Home Owners Loan Corporation
1933 The Home Owners Loan Corporation is established to help homeowners facing loss through
foreclosure.
The Tennessee Valley Authority
1933 The Tennessee Valley Authority is created for unified and multipurpose rehabilitation and
redevelopment of the Tennessee valley. It was the first large-scale regional program in integrated
economic, social, and physical development planning by the federal government.
First U.S. National Planning Board
1933 First U.S. National Planning Board created. It was later abolished as the National Resources
Planning Board in 1943.
The National Housing Act of 1934
established Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) for insuring savings deposits and the
Federal Housing Administration (FHA) for insuring individual home mortgages.
When was American Society of Planning Officials (ASPO) founded and who was the first president?
1934, Alfred Bettman
First U.S. federally built housing for the general population.
1934
Resettlement Administration
1935 Resettlement Administration established under Rexford Tugwell to carry out experiments in
land reform and population resettlement.
First U.S. federally built new towns in peacetime
1935-37, the “greenbelt” towns.
Housing Act of 1937
the first major federal legislative commitment to public housing.
“sector theory”
1939 Homer Hoyt, described in “The Structure and Growth of Residential
Neighborhoods in American Cities.”
ACPI (American City Planning
Institute) renamed American Institute of Planners (AIP)
1939
Serviceman’s Readjustment Act
1944, (“GI Bill”) guarantees loans for homes to veterans under
favorable terms.
The first state redevelopment act
1945, in Pennsylvania
Construction of Park Forest, Illinois, and Levittown, New York, begin
1947
first city to adopt a new comprehensive plan following World War II
1948 Cincinnati
1949 Housing Act (Wagner-Ellender-Taft Bill)
the first U.S. comprehensive housing legislation and also provided funding for urban redevelopment.
When was The National Trust for Historic Preservation is created and chartered by Congress?
1949
Berman v. Parker
1954, the U.S. Supreme Court upholds the right of the Washington, D.C.
Redevelopment Land Agency to condemn properties that are unsightly, though non-deteriorated, if required to achieve objectives of duly established area redevelopment plan.
The Council of Government movement
1954 begins in the Detroit area, and spreads nationwide.
The Housing Act of 1954
creates the Urban Renewal program
Image of the City
1960, Kevin Lynch, defines basic elements of a city’s “imageability”.
first state to institute statewide zoning
1961 Hawaii
The Death and Life of Great American Cities
1961, Jane Jacobs is published.
First U.S. federal housing subsidy program.
1961
first major American city to introduce “flexible” controls in their zoning
ordinance.
1961, New York City
Columbia, Maryland
1963, a new town between Washington D.C. and Baltimore is constructed.
Civil Rights Act outlaws discrimination based on race, creed, and national origin in places of public accommodation.
1964
The Urban General Plan
1964 T.J. Kent
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) created
1965
Who was the first secretary of HUD in 1965?
Robert Weaver
The National Historic Preservation Act
1966, establishes the National Register of Historic Places and provides, through its Section 106, for the protection of preservation-worthy
sites and properties threatened by federal activities. It also creates the national Advisory Council
on Historic Preservation and directs states appoint a State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO).
1966 Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act
1966, launched the “model cities”
program.
Design with Nature
1969 Ian McHarg, linking planning to the natural environment.
1969 National Environmental Policy Act
requires an environmental impact statement for every
federal or federally aided state or major local action that may harm the environment.
Federal Environmental Protection Agency
1970, established to administer the Clean Air Act also adopted in 1970.
First major introduction of the transfer of development rights (TDR) concept
1971, Chicago
Golden v. Planning Board of Ramapo
1972, New York high court allows use of performance criteria as a means of slowing community growth.
First rapid transit system built in San Francisco Bay area
1972
1974 Housing and Community Development Act
Replaces the categorical grant with the block grant as the principal form of federal aid for local community development.
When was American Planning Association (APA) founded?
1978 American Institute of Planners (AIP) and American Society of Planning Officials (ASPO) merged
Penn Central Transportation Co. v. City of New York
1978, The U.S. Supreme Court upholds New York City’s landmark preservation law as applied to Grand Central Terminal.
Mount Laurel II
1983, The New Jersey Supreme Court rules that all 567 municipalities in the state must build their “fair share” of affordable housing.
Nollan v. California Coastal Commission
1987, land-use restrictions, to be valid, must be tied directly to a specific public purpose.
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA)
1991 Passage of ISTEA by Congress. This is the first federal transportation law to mandate planning.
Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council
1992, the U.S. Supreme Court limits local and state government’s ability to restrict private property without compensation.
Dolan v. City of Tigard
1994, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that a jurisdiction must show that
there is a “rough proportionality” between the adverse impacts of a proposed development and the
exactions it wishes to impose on the developer.
Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA)
2000, protect individuals, houses of worship, and other religious institutions from discrimination in zoning and landmarking laws
Disaster Mitigation Act
2000, the first time a proactive approach to disaster relief had been
taken, including requirements for state and local entities to coordinate mitigation planning and
implementation.
Kelo V. City of New London
2005, Supreme Court of the United States. Eminent domain for economic development.
Synoptic Rationality (Rational Comprehensive Approach)
four classical elements:
(1) goal setting; (2) identification of policy alternatives; (3) evaluation of means against ends: and, (4) implementation of the preferred alternative
For example, evaluation can
consist of procedures such as benefit cost analysis, decision trees, PERT, linear
programming, operations research, systems analysis, etc. Synoptic planning uses
conceptual or mathematical models to relate the ends (objectives) to the means
(resources and constraints).
Incremental Planning.
Charles Lindbloom described decision making as a series of small, incremental steps in this article, “The Science of Muddling Through.” He provided a realistic picture of what usually happens with decision and policy making
bodies: Legislators and their advisers (including planners) are continuously confronted with a barrage of information, demands, crises and short term problems and have very little time, money or expertise to resolve them.
Transactive Planning
The transactive planning approach relies on the experience of
people’s lives to examine policy issues. This type of planning is often performed in face to face contact with people affected by decisions and policy. interpersonal dialogue and
a process of mutual learning. The transactive approach also supports the idea of decentralized planning institutions that help people take increasing control over the social processes that govern their welfare. In contrast to incremental planning, more
emphasis is given to the process of personal and organizational development, and not just the achievement of specific community objectives. Plans are evaluated not in terms of what they do for people through the delivery of goods and services, but in terms of the plan’s effect on people, including their values, behavior and capacity for growth
through cooperation.
Advocacy Planning.
1960s, Paul Davidoff
applied to defending the interest of weak or poorly represented groups, such as low income, environmental activists, minorities, the disenfranchised
successful as a means of blocking insensitive plans and challenging the traditional view of the “public interest.”
In practice, however, advocacy planning has been criticized for posing stumbling blocks without being able to mobilize equally effective support for constructive alternatives.
One of the effects of the advocacy movement has been to shift the formulation of social policy from backroom negotiations out into the open. In working through the courts, it
has injected a strong dose of values and principles into planning and greater sensitivity
to unintended side effects of public decisions. A
Radical Planning.
Radical planning is an ambiguous tradition that is usually
associated with spontaneous activism guided by an idealistic vision of personal, self reliance. It stresses the importance of personal growth, cooperative spirit and freedom
from manipulation by force.
Minimum amount of intervention by bureaucracies and maximum participation of people in defining, controlling and experimenting with solutions to their own problems. An example of a radical approach to planning would be to allow neighborhood committees to take over the planning functions that are usually found in centralized community development departments.
Utopianism
Utopian planning seeks to fire the public’s imagination by proposing
sweeping new approaches to traditional urban problems.
goals are clearly and powerfully stated, usually by a single person
recognized by his supporters as a “visionary.”
Examples abound, including Le
Corbusier’s Contemporary City, Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City, Daniel Burnham’s White City and Frank Lloyd Wright’s Broadacre City
Methodism
describes a planning activity for which the method to be employed is clear but the ends to be achieved are largely undefined or unknown.
Seven Step Process for Research
- Initially defining the research problem
- Specifying the limits of the research problem
- Analyzing the research problem by developing its fact base
- Listing goals and objectives of the research
- Identifying all solutions (alternatives) to the research problem
- Defining potential costs and benefits of carrying out the research
- Reviewing the problem statement and refining it, as appropriate
Qualitative data
information about qualities that cannot be easily expressed numerically
as counts or measures, such as:
- Opinions, perspectives, visual preference
Political party affiliation
Colors, names, urban form
Male/Female sex
Symbols
Nominal or Ordinal data
Nominal
discrete characteristics that do not overlap (e.g. sex, political party affiliation)
Ordinal
numbers or symbols depicting an ordered relationships of a characteristic having unspecified intervals (order of people arranged by height, rank of top ten most populous cities)
Quantitative data
information about measures of values or counts that can be easily expressed numerically, such as interval or ratio variables
Interval
(e.g. temperature, year) – arbitrary zero starting place with a number twice as large not equating to a value twice as great (e.g. 20 degrees Fahrenheit is not twice as warm as 10 degrees Fahrenheit). Negative values are possible.
Ratio
(e.g. distance, area) – true zero starting place with a number twice as large equating to a value twice as great (e.g. 20 miles is twice as great a distance as 10 miles). Negative values
are not possible.
independent variable
is the variable that changes, or is controlled by a researcher, to test the
effects on a dependent variable. The independent variable is always on the “X axis”
dependent variable
is typically the focus of the research and depends upon, or varies according to the value of, the independent variable. The dependent variable is on the “Y-axis
Descriptive statistics
report on the data from a total population that is measured, recorded or found to occur. They are statistics that describe and summarize the data, but do not generalize beyond the
data analyzed. Descriptive statistics include four major types of data analysis - measures of:
- frequency
- position
- central tendency
- dispersion or variation
Measures of Frequency
how often a datum occurs
(Count, Percent, Frequency)
Measures of Position
the relative location of a particular datum in a data set
Percentile Ranks, Quartile Ranks
Measures of Central Tendency
the center of the data
mean, median, mode
Mean
simple arithmetic average of the numbers, calculated by adding up all the data numbers in the data set and then dividing the total number of data in the data set.
Median
the middle number of a data set; when the set has an even number of
data points, then the median is the average of the two middle-most numbers
Mode
the most frequent number in the data set; if there are two most frequent
numbers in the set, the data set is bi-modal; if more than two, it is multimodal
Measures of Dispersion or Variation
the spread of the data about a central value
Range, variance, standard deviation
Range
the difference between the highest number and lowest number in a data
set
Variance
a measure of how spread out a data set is; it is computed as the average
squared deviation of each number from the data set’s mean.
Standard deviation
a measure of how close the numbers in the data set are to the mean; it is computed as the square root of the variance
Normal Curve / Standard Distribution
About 68% of the data will lie within
one standard deviation () of the
mean (plus or minus)
95% of the data will lie within two
standard deviations (2) of the
mean (plus or minus)
99% of the data will lie within three
standard deviations (3) of the
mean (plus or minus)
Inferential statistics
inferential statistics are used to make predictions or inferences from a data sample of the entire population (e.g. survey). Inferential statistics are used when the examination of the entire population is not possible or convenient, and you desire to make generalizations or conclusions about a population from the data sample you’ve obtained. Inferential statistics include the following
common types of data analysis:
- linear regression
- correlation analysis (Pearson’s r, Spearson, Chi Square)
- Statistical Significance (t-test)
- Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Linear Regression
Used to understand the linear relationship between a dependent variable (y) and an independent variable (x) in a data set (i.e. how the change in one variable can be used to estimate the change in another variable, and provides a “best fit” line to that
relationship, based on the simple formula y=a+bx).
Correlation Analysis (Pearson’s r, Spearson, Chi Square)
Used to understand the degree to which two variables are dependent on each other (i.e. measure of the strength of the linear relationship between two variables). The correlation can be negative (one variable decreases while the value of the other increases) or positive (both variables decrease or increase together).
Statistical Significance (t-test)
Used to compare two separate, non-overlapping groups or data sets. It compares the
means of the two groups (e.g. test scores for boys, girls). With more groups, use
ANOVA.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Used to compare two or more separate, non-overlapping groups or data sets. It
compares the means of the groups (e.g. a particular political position for Democrats, Independents, Republicans, Libertarians).
Simple Random sampling
Every individual has an equal chance of being selected from the
list.
Use when the population members are similar to one another on important variables
Advantages: Ensures a high degree
of representativeness
Disadvantages: Time consuming and
tedious
Systematic sampling
Starting at a randomly chosen point, choosing every “x” (e.g. 10th)
individual from a list.
Use when the population members are similar to one another on important variables
Advantages: Ensures a high degree
of representativeness, and no need to use a table of random
numbers
Disadvantages: Less random than
simple random sampling
Stratified random sampling
Prior to sampling, the population is divided into characteristics of importance for the research, such as by gender, political party, age, etc. The population is then randomly sampled within each category or stratum at the same proportion that they exist in the full population. For example, if 45% of the overall population are Democratic
party registered, then 45% of the sample is randomly selected from the Democratic party category/stratum.
Use when the population is heterogeneous and contains several different groups, some of which are related to the topic of the study
Advantages: Ensures a high degree
of representativeness. of all the strata or layers in the population
Disadvantages: Time consuming and
tedious
Cluster sampling
Often used when stratified or simple random sampling would be difficult
or expensive. Cluster elements should be as heterogeneous as possible, with each cluster a small representation of the entire population. Cluster sampling if often used for market studies or research into characteristics of geographic entities like cities, counties, regions.
Use when the population consists of units rather than individuals
Advantages: Easy and convenient
Disadvantages: Possibly, members of units are different from one another, decreasing the techniques effectiveness
Non-probability survey sampling
Quota sampling
Convenience sampling
Snowball sampling
Probability survey sampling
Simple random sampling
Systematic sampling
Stratified random sampling
Cluster sampling
Quota sampling
Like stratified sampling, quota sampling identifies population strata (e.g.
religious affiliation), but uses a non-random sampling approach to choose the necessary number of participants per stratum (e.g. ten from each religious affiliation independent of actual population occurrence). This is often done to ensure the inclusion of a particular segment of the population, and the proportions used may or may represent the actual proportion in the population.
Use when strata are
present and stratified
sampling is not
possible
Advantages: Insures some degree of
representativeness of all the strata in the population
Disadvantages: Degree of data
generalization is questionable
Convenience sampling
The sample is taken from a group of people who are easy (convenient) to contact or reach (e.g. volunteers stopping by a booth to answer a survey). The only criteria is whether the participants agree to participate in the survey.
Use when the members of the population are convenient to sample
Advantages: Convenience and
inexpensive
Disadvantages: Degree of data
generalization is questionable
Snowball sampling
Existing study subjects who are hard to find or to identify (e.g. drug users) recruit future study subjects from among their acquaintances – so that the number of study subjects grows like a rolling snowball.
Use when the members of the population are difficult to identify or find
Advantages: It allows studies for
difficult to reach populations and may identify unknown issues
Disadvantages: Unable to identify
sampling error and statistical validity
Margin of Error
This sampling error, calculated as Margin of Error, represents the amount of random “sampling error” in the survey’s results (i.e. the smaller
the margin of error, the more confidence that the survey’s reported results accurately reflect the
actual population being sampled). Sampling error is therefore dependent on sample size, and can be
decreased by increasing the sample size. In determining the appropriate sampling size for a survey, one of the important concerns is the resultant sampling error based on the sample size utilized.
Survey Bias (and Total Error)
The Total Error in a survey is a combination of the sampling error and bias. Unlike sampling error, bias
is not dependent on the sample size and is a systematic, non-sampling error that leads to results greater or less than the true value of the population being surveyed due to faulty survey design or
sampling process problems. There are many types of bias, but the two that planners are most interested in are generally identified as:
- selection bias
- measurement bias
Selection bias
Selection bias arises from the use of a sample that underrepresents the actual population being surveyed. For example, utilizing only social media to survey a city’s population will result in some segments of society not be fully represented in the sample (i.e. those without access to/not using
social media, etc.). Some types of selection bias include:
- Survey undercoverage of a portion of the population
- Survey nonresponsive portion of a population (i.e. either a group unwilling or unable to
respond)
- Voluntary response only surveying
Measurement bias
Measurement bias can occur during the survey’s implementation generally from three basic sources:
- Errors occurring while recording the data – e.g. recording device or computer malfunction
- Leading questions – Often intentional bias, utilizing survey questions intended to solicit a
particular response
- Inadvertent false responses given by respondents – often from the elderly who may be
confused or forgetful
surveys fall within two types of categories:
Questionnaires or interviews.
Questionnaires allow for more anonymity and usually more time to respond
Interviews allow for better clarifications
of answers and follow-up questions.
Mailed surveys
best practice; mail with prepaid return envelope and ask closed-ended questions to get faster higher response rate.
use when: the population being. sampled is highly spread out geographically, costs are a significant issue, but the population’s mail addresses are readily available. They tend to be a better method to obtain more confidential or sensitive information, especially if they can be returned anonymously.
advantages:
- Generally inexpensive.
- Provides input from individuals who may be unlikely to attend meetings, and, if properly sampled, can provide statistically valid results.
- Recipients have the opportunity of doing the survey at their leisure, so using a longer questionnaire is
often a feasible option, as well as survey interviewer time is not required
-They can also reach individuals who do not have internet or smart phone access.
disadvantages:
- Typically low response rates (~15%)
- don’t work well to sample the elderly or poorly educated
- no opportunity to ask follow-up questions or clarify information.
- take a longer time to obtain results
- Because the returned data is self-selected by the whim of the survey
takers, mail surveys can introduce a nonresponse bias unless the survey is constructed to recognize when this is occurring (e.g. conducting follow-up telephone calls to a subset of nonrespondents to check for unintended bias).
Phone surveys
Telephone surveys often provide a more accurate result than mail surveys due to the random dialing feature. Can use either close-ended or open ended
survey methods.
use when : to obtain information from a
general or specifically identifiable population.
You have sufficient time and
budget to carry one out, when your surveyed population is available and willing to participate, and you have no visuals involved.
advantages:
- Fast.
- Cheaper than in person, yet involve a real interviewer that can response
to questions about the survey or clarify issues.
- Provides input from individuals, including the elderly, who may be unlikely to attend meetings.
- Provides input from cross-section of public, not just those on a mailing list.
- Historically had higher response rates than mail-in surveys, but that may be changing
- Usually provides valid samples
- often provide a more accurate result than mail surveys due to the random dialing feature and the absence of self-selection that can sometimes happen in mail surveys, thereby avoiding some biases.
disadvantages:
- Requires training and a good, concise survey instrument.
- Interviewers must be monitored to ensure non-bias.
- land line only telephone method misses those without house phones
- problems associated with unlisted numbers
- cell phone only surveys that may not reach those with only land-lines,
- May encounter unwilling subjects.
- Can be more expensive and labor intensive than mail surveys and internet questionnaires.
- due to phone survey fatigue and the rise in automated telemarketers considered to be “spam”, telephone survey response rates in one
study have been reported to have dramatically fallen over the last two decades to below 10%
Person-to-person surveys
A personal interview, using either closed-ended, or, more commonly, an open-ended questionnaire. Also known as in-person or face-to-face interview/survey.
use when: a specific population needs to be highly accurately surveyed, with more in-depth information collected than usual, or there is a need to use visuals, do market research with specific products, or address highly sensitive information. also useful to sample a population unlikely to
respond to written surveys.
advantages:
- high response rate
- allows for longer surveys and the use of open-ended questionnaires.
- Allows for interviewer clarifications and the capture of verbal and non-verbal ques.
- Provides for highly traceable data from a known survey sample and can
reach a broad, highly representative population.
disadvantages;
- Can be expensive (travel, training, data entry)
- time-consuming
- sample size and geographically limiting
- if not well sampled (e.g. man on the street interviews), may provide neither a valid sample nor reliable results.
- can introduce verbal and non-verbal interviewer bias, with the quality of information captured often depending on the training and ability of the interviewer.
Internet and Social media surveys
Questionnaire designs can vary greatly and may include images, videos, and audio.
use when; to inexpensively reach a much larger sample than mail, phone or person-to-person surveys, or when the use of images, videos, or audio is desired.
- to reach a particular online community.
Advantages
- Can provide input from individuals who might be unlikely to attend meetings
- provides higher response rate than other communication forms.
- Typically, no interviewer bias
- surveys can often be started and completed at a later date or even be interactive.
- Inexpensive
- data collection is usually quickly captured, easily analyzed and available in real- time online.
disadvantage
- generally does not provide statistically valid results when surveys are open to all online users, due to self-selection and internet access issues
- Typically, an online survey does not control the geographic reach of the
survey, and the results can be easily skewed or biased.
- Selection bias is of particular concern
from social media surveys which have less universal availability than general online access
Computer Aided Drafting and Design (CADD)
a system utilizing computer software and tools to create, modify, analyze and optimize a design. It can be used to depict a two or three
dimensional physical object or location (building site), engineer drawing, blueprint, or site
drawing.
Management Information System (MIS)
a system utilized for decision-making, and for the coordination, control, analysis, and visualization of management information in an
organization. It can be used to produce regular reports on the ongoing operations and performance in an organization, including its strategic, tactical, financial and operational
conditions.
Geographic Information System (GIS)
a system utilized to capture, store, analyze, model and display data associated with its geographic position (x, y, z) on the Earth’s surface (i.e.
“spatial” data). Among many other planning uses, GIS can be used to track and analyze land use data, monitor land use trends, model and display future hurricane paths, carry out land use suitability analyses, determine and show buffer areas for environmentally sensitive areas, and track and analyze real-time traffic flow and other “Smart City” information. It generally does this by allowing large amounts of spatial data to be stored and displayed in separate layers.
Roger Tomlinson
Is generally acknowledged as the “Father of GIS” following the publication of his paper entitled “A Geographic Information System for Regional Planning”, and his role helping direct
the development of the Canadian Geographic Information System that many consider as laying down
the roots of today’s GIS.
land suitability analysis
a method used to identify suitable locations for placing land uses to
minimize adverse environmental impacts.
Ian McHarg
In his 1969 book Design with Nature, Ian McHarg (sometimes referred to as the “Father of Ecological Planning”) described an overlay procedure involving paper maps, pens, and multiple same-scale transparent mylar sheets, used over a light table, to depict individual shaded layers of concern, such as wetlands, soils, vegetation, slope, floodplains, and aquifer recharge areas. Once all the individual mylar layers were put atop one another for a proposed development location, the area with the lightest or absence of shaded areas would be considered as potentially the most suitable development site. This composite suitability map “layering concept” is fundamental to the analysis and visualization of geographical data layers
used in today’s GIS.
Raster data
is a digital image comprised of pixels (i.e. a matrix grid of cells), like the image produced in your digital camera, but whose edges have been given a geographic location. One commonly used form of GIS raster data is digitized aerial photographs, typically created from a uniform scale USGS Orthophoto map, that often form the underlying basemap used in many GIS systems. Raster data can also be used to display elevation, satellite images, or other types of paper maps that have been
scanned into a digital format with a geospatial context. They are particularly suited to representing data that is continually changing across the landscape, like temperature, rainfall or population density.
Vector data
is not made up of pixels, but is comprised of points, lines, or polygons with separate geospatial coordinates and computer stored attributes (i.e. information related to the geographic
feature, such as its name, length, elevation, soil type, landuse, ownership, etc.). Vector data is typically the main source of geospatial data that is analyzed in a GIS. Point data may be used for information like customer addresses, fire hydrants, water quality data points, public museums, well
locations, emergency shelters, etc. Line data represents linear features, such as roads, water and sewer lines, rivers, walking trails, or power lines. Polygon data can represent features such as census tracts, development lots, county boundaries, school boundaries, or tribal lands.
Basemap
A basemap is a background orthorectified (georeferenced) image that provides a point of
reference map displaying aerial location. Typically a raster image, basemaps are non-editable and
often consist of aerial photographs or USGS quad maps that display local topography, houses, streets,
etc, as the bottom (base) GIS layer.
Datum
A datum defines a specific, known point on or in the Earth that is used as a reference location for projections. These can be vertical or horizontal (generally the most referenced). An example of a horizontal datum is NAD27, which stands for North American Datum of 1927. The North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83) is the most current datum being used in North America. The World Geodetic System (WGS84) is the reference coordinate system used worldwide by the Global Positioning System. When combining GIS data from different sources, it is important to transform all
information to a common datum and common projection.
Geocoding
Geocoding is the process of transforming a description of a location to an actual location on the earth’s surface. Often this involves converting (i.e. assigning geographic coordinates for) street addresses so that the resulting spatial data can be displayed on a GIS map.
Metadata
Metadata is data about data. GIS metadata provides information about the GIS dataset including an abstract describing the dataset, the projection system being used, the information
included in the dataset, its origin, creation, when last updated and accuracy.
Projection
A way to display the curved surface of the earth on a flat surface.
- Azimuthal equidistant
- Lambert conformal conic
- Miller cylindrical
Orthophotograph
An aerial or satellite raster image photograph with a uniform scale, in a given map projection. An orthophotograph can be used to measure distance as it provides an accurate representation of the Earth’s surface. Often used as a GIS basemap.
Pixels
The grid cells that make up raster images, like in a digital camera. Each cell is the smallest (and identical in size) component of information in an image.
Registration
Aligning maps, images and databases in a non-projected coordinate system into a coordinate system with a common datum and projection. Registration is required to connect data to specific geographic points on the Earth’s surface in order to accurately locate the information and
allow for valid analysis between different GIS layers.
map land use standards
standardized colors to represent various GIS land uses
- yellow: residential
- red: shopping, business, or trade activities
- purple: industrial, manufacturing, waste-related activities
- blue: social, institutional, or infrastructure-related activities
- gray; travel or movement activities
- dark slate gray: Mass assembly of people
- light green: leisure activities
- forest green; natural resources-related activities
- white: no human activity or unclassifiable activity
Query
searching or retrieving GIS data without altering the existing data, based on the specifics asked by the operator:
- Location query – e.g. asking to display or list all commercial land use parcels less than 1 acre
in size - Attribute query – e.g. asking to display or list all commercial parcels owned by John T. Smith
- Boolean query (AND, OR, NOT) – combining location and attribute information in a query:
e.g. asking to display or list all commercial land use parcels less than 1 acre in size “AND” owned by John T. Smith
Buffer
The buffer tool in a GIS is a proximity function that creates a polygon at a set distance surrounding a selected point, line or polygon (e.g. displaying a 200’ buffer around a stream, below).
Suitability analysis
The GIS tool version of McHarg’s land use suitability analysis, allowing a user to identify the most suitable geographic site from a set of possible sites, through applying a set of individually weighted criteria to identify the “best location”.
A few of the many general planning uses of a GIS include:
Visualizing and understanding spatial (geographic) data
Assessing environmental impacts and
Depicting hazard vulnerabilities
Municipal and transportation planning
Marketing analyses
Modeling and simulations
Probability analyses
Trend analyses & Scenario planning
Metes and bounds
is a legal surveying land description used in the U.S. that has its origins with
colonial era England. It is used as the principal means of legally describing land through surveying in the eastern colonial states and Texas. In most other states, the later Public Land Surveying System (PLSS) is the principal means of legally describing land, supplemented by metes and bound descriptions wherever survey areas are irregular in size and shape.
Metes and bound legal descriptions utilize natural landmarks, such as streams, trees or big rocks, and man-made structures, such as roads and markers with respect to the magnetic north or south directions.
For example, such a bearing might be listed as “N 40°25’ E”, which means that the bearing is 40°25’ clockwise, or east of north. This provides the same degree measure regardless of which direction a particular boundary is being followed; the boundary can be traversed in the opposite direction simply by exchanging N for S and E for W. In other words, “N 40°25’ E” describes the same boundary as “S 40°25’ W”, when surveying in the opposite direction.
metes and bound survey system has drawbacks:
- Both natural and man-made structures change or are lost over time;
- Irregular property shapes result in complex legal descriptions;
- Unsurveyed lands to sell, like newly independent America wanted to do for lands in Ohio and west of the Appalachians, couldn’t be accommodated by the system
Public Land Survey System (PLSS)
The Public Land Survey System was originally proposed by Thomas Jefferson and created by the Land
Ordinance of 1785, shortly after the American Revolutionary War, when the new federal government wanted to both distribute land to Revolutionary War veterans and sell land to raise money.
To accomplish this, the new post-Revolutionary War lands would be surveyed with the country’s new
rectangular Township, Section, Range surveying system, while the existing colonial states would remain on the metes and bounds British-based system.
The PLSS begins with the establishment of north-south meridian line(s), east-west base line(s) and 6
mile-by-six mile square townships within a state that form the structure upon which all subsequent surveying is based (see example below). Some states have only one meridian and base-line, others either share them between states or have multiple sets of meridians and base lines, the number
typically reflecting their history and acquisition by the United States.
in the Public Land Survey System (PLSS) system, what is the size of a Township?
A Township is 6-miles by 6-miles on a side, or a total of 36 square miles.
Federal Township and Range System
another name for Public Land Survey System (PLSS)
in the Public Land Survey System (PLSS), how do the township numbers change in relation to eh base line and Meridian?
Note how Township numbers (e.g. T1N) increase North and South away from the base line; and how
Range numbers (R1E) increase East and West away from the Meridian.
Meridian Line
In the Public Land Survey system (PLSS) north-south meridian line(s)
Base Line
In the Public Land Survey system (PLSS) east-west base line(s)
Township sections
In the Public Land Survey system (PLSS), 36 sections within the Township, each section being
one mile on a side, or one square mile (640 acres).
Note the unique number ordering of sections, with Section 1 of the Township starting the numbering system in the upper right. The numbering system of sections then moves to the west to Section 6, then drops south for Section 7, and so on.
