Pressure Groups Flashcards
(25 cards)
- Explain and analyse three ways in which pressure groups contribute to political pluralism in the USA
P – Politicians taking into account a broad range of ideas, disagreement healthy for democracy as allows the government and people to hear both sides and reach the best decision.
E – For example, Americans united for Life campaigns against abortion and its aims are diametrically different to Planned parenthood, a major health provider that centres around providing safe, legal abortion.
P – Represent the marginalised and can help reform outdated systems/laws.
E – The NAACP funded Brown vs Topeka (1954) and the ACLU brought the legal case of Obergefell vs Hodges (2015)
P - Political election funding by pressure groups is a form of free speech and enables a pluralist political debate.
E – In 2018, the League of Conservative voters spent $85 million on electoral campaigning.
P – Protection of Constitutional rights
E – 2nd Amendment gun rights NRA
- Explain and analyse three ways in which pressure groups contribute to political elitism in the USA
P – Wealthy groups exert too much influence and can prevent change
E – The NRA has resisted the introduction of gun control despite 60% supporting more restrictive gun laws
P – Amicus curiae briefs
E – Amicus briefs are more likely to be cited by justices if they are written by legal experts. This favours pressure groups with specialist legal expertise and extensive experience of preparing amicus briefs
P – The lobbying industry exacerbates the problem of elitism as only wealthy pressure groups can afford professional lobbyists.
E – These firms are clustered around “K Street” which is dubbed the “corridor of influence” in Washington. In 2019, over $3 billion was spent of federal lobbying. It is argued that pressure groups with deep pockets are able to buy influence. For example, the US Chamber of Commerce generally spends more on lobbying than any other organisation ($77 million in 2019). One of its aims was to convince Congress to pass the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement, which it achieved after meeting with 36 members of Congress.
A - However, high spending does not automatically guarantee results. The Chamber could not convince Trump’s administration to reverse tariffs on goods from China and the EU
- Explain and analyse three reasons why some pressure groups are insider groups in the USA. p500
P – Have close ties to government or political parties.
E – The National Rifle Association has strong ties with the Republican party.
P - They are often asked to participate in the drafting of legislation, consulted on key issues, or included in advisory panels.
E - For instance, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce which fights for the interests of business and free enterprise
P - possess specific professional expertise that ensures policy-makers listen to them.
E – For example the American Medical Association contributes to policy outcomes at the federal and state levels due to it’s research and advocacy
- Explain and analyse three reasons why some pressure groups are outsider groups in the USA.
P – Use of courtroom litigation and public education
E - The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) brought the case of Obergefell v Hodges in 2015.
P – Do not have enough funding to afford professional lobbyists.
E - It is argued that pressure groups with deep pockets are able to buy influence. For example, the US Chamber of Commerce generally spends more on lobbying than any other organisation ($77 million in 2019). One of its aims was to convince Congress to pass the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement, which it achieved after meeting with 36 members of Congress.
P - They are frequently anti establishment, meaning they are fundamentally opposed to the existing political system.
E - For example, the group Climate Direct Action ran ‘valve turner’ protests in 2016 in which members turned off the valves on 15% of US crude oil imports for nearly a day. – In 2019 Protesters from the climate crisis group Extinction Rebellion brought disruption to Capitol Hill in Washington, superglueing themselves to doorways to block politicians and staff.
- Explain and analyse three reasons why some pressure groups are promotional groups in the USA.
P - Promote a particular cause that is not in their members direct interest
E – ACLU work to improve the civil rights and liberties of all Americans. Obergefell v Hodges
P – Driven by altruism and not direct self-interest
E – Promote a particular cause they believe will benefit society
E – Gun control groups such as the NRA
P - Religious groups
E - The Alliance Defending Freedom (ADF), formerly the Alliance Defense Fund, is an American conservative Christian legal advocacy group that works to expand Christian religious practices within public schools and in government.
- Explain and analyse three reasons why some pressure groups are interest groups in the USA. p500
P – Some interest groups represent individuals from the same social group
E - National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) represents African-Americans. Instrumental in funding brown vs Topeka 1954
P – Interest groups can represent members who have the same aims
E – Eg. Business or trade groups, e.g. the US Chamber of Commerce
P – Groups focused on improving the rights, pay and working conditions of their members
E – United Auto Workers aim to improve human and worker rights, fair labour standards and a new approach to international trade
- Explain and analyse three ways that the US political system encourages pressure group activity.
P - The US system of government provides many different access points for pressure groups to potentially wield influence.
E – Due to the separation of powers, pressure groups can choose to lobby state or federal government, the legislature and the judiciary.
P - guaranteed constitutional rights, particularly First Amendment rights of freedom of speech and assembly and the right to ‘petition the government for redress of grievances’.
E – Citizens United V FEC (2010) led to Super PACs and the ability for pressure groups to raise unlimited funds during political campaigns. In 2018, the League of Conservative voters spent $85 million on electoral campaigning
P – Amicus curiae briefs
E – Submit information and specific evidence to court cases with the hope of influencing the outcome. 148 were submitted to Obergefell v Hodges (2015)
A - In the 1950s the average Supreme Court case received just one amicus brief, whereas a record 16 briefings were submitted per case in 2019–20.
- Explain and analyse the activities of three social movements in the USA.
P – The civil rights movement
E – Campaigned for equal rights for African-American citizens. This involved boycotts such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott lasted 381 days, sit-ins and protests such as The March on Wahington with over 200,000 demonstrators.
P – Mee Too/Anti-lockdown
P - BLM
E - Has utilized social media as an important tool by coining #BlackLivesMatter, a hashtag that mobilised large numbers of people and dominated the political agenda, a process that would previously have taken years or decades of painstaking campaigning and fundraising. 2020 Murder of George Floyd led protesters to defy the risk of contracting COVID-19 to join large demonstrations in at least 140 cities across the USA. Some were peaceful while others were marred by rioting, looting, arson and violence against the police.
- Explain and analyse three methods used by pressure groups in the US to try to influence decision-making
P –In the courts – funding legal cases or submitting Amicus Curiae briefs
E – Submit info and set out specific evidence or research that the pressure group hopes will influence the justices.148 were submitted to Obergefell v Hodges (2015) Some amicus curie briefs clearly influence the decision-making process, as justices refer to them in their written opinions on cases.
A - In the 1950s the average Supreme Court case received just one amicus brief, whereas a record 16 briefings were submitted per case in 2019–20. However, amicus briefs are more likely to be cited by justices if they are written by legal experts. This favours pressure groups with specialist legal expertise and extensive experience of preparing amicus briefs
P - Lobbying is the process by which pressure groups try to influence members of the executive or legislature by meeting with them.
E - Revolving door syndrome Lobbying firms try to hire lobbyists who have previously worked within the executive branch or Congress. This allows the firm to take advantage of ready-made contacts within the executive or the legislature.
A - It is argued that pressure groups with deep pockets are able to buy influence. For example, the US Chamber of Commerce generally spends more on lobbying than any other organisation ($77 million in 2019). One of its aims was to convince Congress to pass the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement, which it achieved after meeting with 36 members of Congress.
P- Funding election campaigns
E - In the 2016 election season the NRA $52.5 million on electoral campaigning. Much of this funded television and radio adverts.
A - Trump also told state governors “Half of you are so afraid of the NRA. There’s nothing to be afraid of…if they’re not with you, we have to fight them every once in a while”. Big spending does not guarantee influence, even with politicians who have benefited directly
- Explain and analyse three methods used by pressure groups to influence the executive branch of government
P - Lobbying is the process by which pressure groups try to influence members of the executive or legislature by meeting with them.
E - Revolving door syndrome Lobbying firms try to hire lobbyists who have previously worked within the executive branch or Congress. This allows the firm to take advantage of ready-made contacts within the executive or the legislature.
P -Direct action puts public pressure on the executive to force concessions
E - The 2020 murder of George Floyd, an African American, by a white police officer who knelt on his neck for 9 minutes 29 seconds led protesters to defy the risk of contracting COVID-19 to join large demonstrations in at least 140 cities across the USA. On rare occasions, pressure groups deliberately use violence to put pressure on the executive. The organisation known as Weathermen was a faction of Students for a Democratic Society that carried out a bombing campaign from 1969 with the aim of destroying ‘US imperialism’.
P – Funding election campaigns
E - In the 2016 election season the NRA $52.5 million on electoral campaigning and successfully got a Republican president in power. However Trump also told state governors “Half of you are so afraid of the NRA. There’s nothing to be afraid of…if they’re not with you, we have to fight them every once in a while”. Big spending does not guarantee influence, even with politicians who have benefited directly.
- Explain and analyse three ways in which pressure groups can use the courts to try to achieve their objectives
P – Submitting Amicus Curiae briefs
E – Submit info and set out specific evidence or research that the pressure group hopes will influence the justices.148 were submitted to Obergefell v Hodges (2015) Some amicus curie briefs clearly influence the decision-making process, as justices refer to them in their written opinions on cases.
A - In the 1950s the average Supreme Court case received just one amicus brief, whereas a record 16 briefings were submitted per case in 2019–20. However, amicus briefs are more likely to be cited by justices if they are written by legal experts. This favours pressure groups with specialist legal expertise and extensive experience of preparing amicus briefs.
P – Funding court cases where they wish to see a change
E - The NAACP funded Brown v Topeka (1954), in which the Supreme Court decided that the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ was unconstitutional
P – The Federalist Society - Appointment of judges
- Explain and analyse three ways in which pressure groups can seek to influence Congress. p501-513
P – Supporting candidates in House and Senate races
E - In 2018 a pro-life Catholic Democrat, congressman Lipinski, received the support of the pro-life group SBA List, which spent $100,000 campaigning for him. Their members canvassed 17,000 homes during the tight race. Lipinski won by just 2,000 votes, and the SBA List’s input was seen as crucial.
P – Grassroots campaigning
E - Pressure groups can mobilise their members to contact members of Congress. This allows them to demonstrate that an issue has mass support, and can be very effective if targeted at politicians who are keen to secure the support of their constituents or the general public.
P – Lobbying members of Congress to support their cause
E – US Chamber of Commerce. One of its aims was to convince Congress to pass the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement, which it achieved after meeting with 36 members of Congress.
- Explain and analyse three ways in which US pressure groups have used direct action to try to achieve their objectives.
P – Non-violent direct action
E - African-American protesters used ‘sit-ins’ in segregated ‘white-only’ areas, and bus boycotts to put pressure on bus companies to desegregate their buses. In 1963, 250,000 people attended the historic ‘March on Washington
P – Illegal civil disobedience
E – Anti war pressure groups marching on the Pentagon and breaking through police lines, blocking access to recruitment offices. The pressure group Vietnam Veterans against the War organised protests including one that saw more than 800 veterans throw their medals in front of the Capitol.
P – Extreme violence
E - The organisation known as Weathermen was a faction of Students for a Democratic Society that carried out a bombing campaign from 1969 with the aim of destroying ‘US imperialism’.
- Explain and analyse three reasons why direct action can hinder the effectiveness of pressure group activity in the US
P – Can alienate the public through it’s links to violence
E - The 2020 murder of George Floyd, an African American, by a white police officer who knelt on his neck for 9 minutes 29 seconds led protesters to defy the risk of contracting COVID-19 to join large demonstrations in at least 140 cities across the USA. Some were peaceful while others were marred by rioting, looting, arson and violence against the police. These spontaneous outbreaks of violence could have alienated public opinion against the Black Lives Matter movement. However, the authorities responded with curfews, tear gas, smoke grenades and rubber bullets, and even arrested a journalist covering the riots.
P – Extreme violence makes it easy to disregard a group as “extremists”
E -The organisation known as Weathermen was a faction of Students for a Democratic Society that carried out a bombing campaign from 1969 with the aim of destroying ‘US imperialism’. The group was pursued into hiding by the FBI’s anti-terrorist task force. Such extreme actions can make it easier for the executive to maintain its policy, as perpetrators of violence are easy to discredit.
P – Legal consequences
A – Make them almost Martyrs for their cause – augmentation principle - The riskier the action, the more commitment this demonstrates. This is because it shows they are not acting out of self-interest, they truly believe in their view. Extinction rebellion uses mass arrests to waste police time and resources
- Explain and analyse three ways in which pressure group funding of elections can influence politics in the USA.
P – Influential in House races
E - In 2018 a pro-life Catholic Democrat, congressman Lipinski, received the support of the pro-life group SBA List, which spent $100,000 campaigning for him. Their members canvassed 17,000 homes during the tight race. Lipinski won by just 2,000 votes, and the SBA List’s input was seen as crucial.
P – Senate races
E - Senate races was more than double House races in 2020 ($1,547 million as opposed to $702 million). Pressure groups prioritise Senate campaigns as they yield a 6-year term and therefore a better return on the group’s investment. Senators also have greater individual influence as there are only 100 of them, and the upper house has slightly more power.
P – Influential in presidential elections
E - In the 2016 election season the NRA $52.5 million on electoral campaigning and successfully got a Republican president in power. However Trump also told state governors “Half of you are so afraid of the NRA. There’s nothing to be afraid of…if they’re not with you, we have to fight them every once in a while”. Big spending does not guarantee influence, even with politicians who have benefited directly.
- Explain and analyse the three relationships within an ‘iron triangle’
P – Congress and the bureaucracy
E – The federal bureaucracy sets the policy agenda and determines how Congress’s laws will be implemented. Congress is responsible for funding executive departments and for producing laws that affect those departments’ policy areas.
P – Interest groups and Congress
E - Interest groups can influence by making donations to PACS for a Congressmen in election campaigns. Congress gives friendly legislation and oversight to interest groups via congressional committees.
P – Interest groups and federal bureaucracy
E –Interest groups can use their influence over Congress to put pressure on the executive. branch. Bureaucracy sets the laws interest groups must follow. Can deliver low regulation for the groups.
- Explain and analyse three ways that the defence industry is an example of an ‘iron triangle.’ p511-513
P – Interest groups and Congress
E – Interest groups such as Defence contractors spend millions on the campaigns of members of Congress. In the 2018 election cycle, these totalled $30 million. In return, Congress will give them friendly legislation and support.
P – Congress and the bureaucracy
E – Committees (Defence committee) will provide political support for the US Department of Defence. In return, they will execute the policy choices of the committee.
P – Interest groups and the bureaucracy
E – Interest groups such as Defence contractors provide congressional support through lobbying congress. In exchange, when defence companies become integral to the economy of so many states, the government has a strong incentive to ensure they prosper.
- Explain and analyse three arguments that pressure groups are more powerful than political parties.
P – The ‘revolving door’ of key personnel allows pressure groups to maintain close relationships with Congress and the executive.
E – Many of the most sought after lobbyists are those who served in government posts as groups can make the most of their insider connections. Eg. Former press secretary Jay Carney who was the public face of Obama’s administration was hired by Amazon.
P – Pressure groups more influential in the election of candidates.
E – Nomination is an open, public process and candidates don’t receive funds from political parties. However, pressure groups often support candidates who support their aims. In 2018 a pro-life Catholic Democrat, congressman Lipinski, received the support of the pro-life group SBA List, which spent $100,000 campaigning for him. Their members canvassed 17,000 homes during the tight race. Lipinski won by just 2,000 votes, and the SBA List’s input was seen as crucial. This gives them significant influence over the voters of members in congress e.g the NRA have such great scope and are known to donate a great deal to candidates.
P - Pressure groups have shaped public agenda.
E - This can be seen with NAACP who arguably made civil rights a national issues when they brought the case Brown V board. This shows how pressure groups can bring cases to the supreme court and then they can become a central issue
- Explain and analyse three arguments that political parties are more powerful than pressure groups.
P – They wield legislative power in Congress, especially if a party controls both houses.
E – As voting is increasingly across partisan lines, when their party has a majority legislation and policies can be easily passed. During the 2009-2010 period of united government for the Democrats, they passed three major reforms aimed at “boosting, the economy, expanding healthcare provision and curbing the excess of big financial institutions
P – Pressure groups only have “negative influence” and political parties have “positive influence”
E – In other words, their role is limited to saying no to measures by preventing legislation from passing. However political parties are able to say “yes” to large scale initiatives and pass measures.
P - Parties formulate policy for all areas of government, not just a specific sector or issue as pressure groups do.
E – More powerful as they can legislate on a broader range of issues. However, broad big tent with limited focus.
- Explain and analyse three ways in which it is argued PACs and SuperPACs have too much influence in US elections.
P – Wealthy groups that support PACs and Super PACSs may not reflect the will of the people
E - In the 2016 election season the NRA $52.5 million on electoral campaigning by donating to PACs and Super PACs. The NRA has resisted the introduction of gun control despite 60% supporting more restrictive gun laws.
P – Elections do not reflect the will of the people, instead they reflect that of elite donors
E - PACs and Super PACs are funded by a tiny minority of citizens. Less than 1% of American adults provided two thirds of the funding for federal candidates in 2016. Elon Musk, the richest man in the world donated $250 million in 2024
P - The election campaigns of individual members of Congress can be transformed by donations or support from a PAC or Super PAC
E – This means that legislators may subsequently vote in the interests of their financial backers and not the public.
- Explain and analyse three ways in which it is argued PACs and SuperPACs do not have too much influence on US elections
P – Money does not necessarily guarantee victory
E - Although pressure groups and corporations give millions of dollars to Super PACs, this does not automatically translate into political power. In 2016, Super PACs spent $129 million more supporting Clinton’s unsuccessful presidential campaign.
P – The rise of dark money threatens integrity and transparency of elections
E – Could have surpassed $660 million in 2020
P – Encourage pluralism
E – Allowing pressure groups which represent a broad range of views and people to use their free speech by donating to PACs and Super PACs is important to ensure the wills of all people are taken into account
A - Elon Musk, the richest man in the world announced in 2024 he was going to donate $45 million monthly to the America PAC, a Trump supporting Super PAC he set up.
- Explain and analyse three ways that structural theory could be used to study the similarities and differences between US and UK pressure groups
P – The US federal system provides more access points.
E – The UK has general elections, elections for devolved assemblies and local elections. In the USA, pressure groups can campaign in presidential elections, Senate elections, and House seats every 2 years. There also state and primary elections.
P – Unlimited US election spending versus restrictive UK campaign finance and advertising law
E – Citizens Unite vs FEC (2020) has allowed for millions to be donated to PACs and Super PACs. In 2020, Super PACs spent $1.8 billion. Pressure groups in the USA also spend large sums on TV ads which is illegal in the UK. Political TV ads are banned and many pressure groups are registered charities so have tight restrictions on political donations. During general elections, pressure groups can spend a maximum of £320,000.
P - More powerful Supreme Court in the USA as the Constitution is sovereign
E – This has resulted in pressure groups winning landmark rulings such as same-sex marriage and desegregation. In the UK, parliament is sovereign. This means that judicial review is limited as it is only advisory.
- Explain and analyse three ways that rational theory could be used to study the methods used by pressure groups in the USA and UK
P - Members of Congress are more likely to be influenced by lobbying as they may hope for the support of pressure groups during election campaigns, or fear condemnation.
E - The NRA grades candidates on their support for the right to bear arms, which can influence the result of close elections. Tight UK electoral finance laws and a stronger party whip system mean that MPs are less likely to be influenced by lobbying.
P – Political alliances help fund political parties
E - Unions help to fund Labour and the Democrats, and share many of their political objectives. Democrat or Labour-led executives generally allow unions more influence, whereas Republican or Conservative-led executives tend to listen more to big business.
P – Pressure groups in both parties who are not being heard might resort to direct action
E - Outsider groups, who are denied the opportunity to engage in a dialogue with the government, may feel forced to use direct action in order to put their issue on the political agenda. The Black Lives Matter mass protests in the USA and the UK in June 2020 had the effect of placing a spotlight on systemic racism and inequality in both societies. Insider groups who cannot convince the government to agree with them may also be driven to direct action, as in 2016 when the BMA called a junior doctors’ strike over government changes to UK junior doctors’ contracts.
- Explain and analyse three ways that cultural theory could be used to study the influence of pressure groups in the USA and UK
P - Both cultures prize freedom of speech
E – In the US, groups are protected by the First Amendment and can spend unlimited amounts in elections. Super PACs spent $1.8 billion. Pressure groups in the USA also spend large sums on TV ads which is illegal in the UK. Political TV ads are banned and many pressure groups are registered charities so have tight restrictions on political donations
P - UK and US political cultures have both been criticised for elitism, because of the influence of wealthy pressure groups
E – The NRA has resisted the introduction of gun control despite 60% supporting more restrictive gun laws, amicus curiae briefs are more likely to be cited by justices if they are written by legal experts and the lobbying industry exacerbates the problem of elitism as only wealthy pressure groups can afford professional lobbyists. In the UK well-resourced pressure groups are more likely to be insider groups. This means they often “have the ear” of the government and use this to manipulate legislation from within, often before they are even publicised. Groups that are already powerful often claim a monopoly of knowledge and competence in their field
P - Both cultures share a tradition of political protest using marches, demonstrations and direct action. Marginalised groups have used these methods to win civil rights
E – BLM in 2020 after the murder of George Floyd.
