Problem 1 - Performance

Question 1

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Relevance of individual performance

Company and individual

Answer 1

• Company: high individual performance is relevant for the company to meet their goals.
• Individual: high individual performance is a source of satisfaction, mastery, pride and financial benefits.

Question 2

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

What is performance

Action and outcome aspects of performance

Answer 2

Performance as “Action” aspect (behavioural): what an individual does in the work situation.
* Ex: assembles an engine or teaching children math.

Performance as “Outcome” aspect: consequence or result of the individual’s behaviour, which does not depend only on the individual’s behaviour.
* Ex: teaching math perfectly might not increase the children’s scores if they have intellectual deficits.

Question 3

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Task Performance

Performance as a Multi-dimensional concept

Answer 3

The individual’s proficiency which contribute to the organisation’s “technical core”.
* Indirect contribution - managers or staff.
* Direct contribution - production workers

Question 4

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Contextual performance

Performance as a Multi-dimensional concept

Answer 4

Performance that does not contribute to the technical core but supports the organisational, social, and psychological environment to pursue the organisations’ goals.
* Ex: helping co-workers, being reliable, suggesting how to improve work procedures etc.

Question 5

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Differentiation between task and contextual performance

Performance as a Multi-dimensional concept

Activities, related to.., and roles.

Answer 5

Activities:
* Task performance = varies between jobs.
* Contextual performance = relatively similar across jobs.

Related to:
* Task performance = ability.
* Contextual performance = personality and motivation.

Roles:
* Task performance = in-role behaviour.
* Contextual performance = extra-role behaviour.

Question 6

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Factors for task performance

Performance as a Multi-dimensional concept

Answer 6

1. Job-specific task proficiency.
2. Non-job specific task proficiency
3. Written and oral communication proficiency
4. Supervision - in the case of a supervisory or leadrship position.
5. Management/administration: planning, organising, guiding, directing, feedback, training, etc.

Question 7

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

2 types of contextual performance

Performance as a Multi-dimensional concept

Stabalising (with 5 components), and proactive behaviours.

Answer 7

1. Stabalising -> smooth functioning of the organisation (organisational citizenship behaviour iwth its 5 components (altruism, conscientiousness, civic virtue, courtesy, and sportsmanship)).
2. Proactive behaviours -> aims at changing and improving work procedures and organisational process (organisational spontaneity, prosocial organisational behaviour, taking charge).

Question 8

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Relationship between task and contextual performance

Performance as a Multi-dimensional concept

Answer 8

• Conceptually and empirically distinct.
• Task performance and contextual performanc efactors (ex: job dedication and interpersonal facillitation) contribute uniquely to overall performance in managerial jobs.
• Each is predicted by different variables: task performance = abilities and skills, contextual performance = personality , initiative and motivation.

Question 9

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Performance as a dynamic concept: how does it vary over time?

Long-term changes and temporary changes.

Answer 9

Learning process and other long-term changes:
* Start stage = learning process initially increases and then plateaus.
* Transition stage = early skill acquisition - controlled processing, declarative knowledge and optimal allocation of attentional resources.
* Maintenance stage = later skill acquisition - automatic procesing, procedural knowledge and psychomotor abilities.

Temporary changes -> psycho-physiological state:
* Caused by: long-working hours, disturbances of the circadian rhythm, or exposure to stress.
* May result in: fatigue or decrease in activity, however performance does not necessarily decrease (person may switch to different strategies)

Question 10

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Perspectives on performance: overall

Perspectives on performance

Answer 10

Not mutually exclusive, but encompass a different angle.

1. Indiviaul differences = individual characteristics (ex: general mental ability, personality) as sources for vairation in performance.
2. Situational perspective = focuses on situational aspects as facilitators and impediments for performance.
3. Performance regulation perspective = the performance process.

Question 11

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Individual differences perspective - Which individual performs best?

Perspectives on performance

Campbell’s 3 determinants, predictors and applications

Answer 11

Campbell = general model - performance components as a function of 3 determinants:
1. Declarative knowledge - facts, principles, goals and self.
2. Procedural knowledge and skills - cognitive and psychomotor skills, physical skills, self-management skills, and interpersonal skills.
3. Motivation - choice to perform, level of effort, and persistence of effort.

Predictors:
* Cognitive ability - strong predictor
* Personality = conscientiousness, emotioanl stability
* Motivation = achievement, self-efficacy
* Experience = modest
* Motivational traits = trait-based (achievement/anxiety), skill-based (emotional/motivation control).

Applications:
* Personnel selection
* Training programs
* Exposure to developmental experiences.

Question 12

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Situational perspective - in which situations do people perform best?

Perspectives on performance

Enhancing and impeding factors

Answer 12

Enhancing factors:
* Job characteristics model (hackman and oldham) = variety, identity, significance, autonomy, feedback - small but posive relationship with job performance.
* Sociotechnical systems theory = joint optimisation of technical + social systems (concerned with group performance)

Impeding factors:
* Within role theory (role ambiguity and role conflict as stressors) = weak evidence for negative impact.
* Situational constraints (lack of information, problems with machines and supplies as stressors) = mixed evidence.
* Stressors may increase personal initiative.

Takeaway: positive job design features (autonomy, significance) matter more than reducing stressors.

Question 13

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Performance regulation perspective - How does the performance process look like? What is happening when someone is “performing”?

Perspectives on performance

differences between high/moderate performers, action theory approach, goal-setting theory, feedback, reinforcement theory

Answer 13

Differences between High and moderate performers:
* The way they approach their tasks and arrive at conclusions.
* High performers focus more on long-range goals and show more planning in complex and ill-structured tasks.
* Moderate performers focus more on short-range and show better performance in well-structured tasks.

Action theory appraoch - describes the performance process from both a process and structural point of view:
* Process pov focuses on the sequential aspects of an action = goal development, information search, planning, execution, monitoring and feedback processing.
* Structural pow refers to its hierarchical organisation = high goals, good mental health, detailed planning, and good feedback processes.

Goal-setting theory - assumes that goals affect performance via 4 mediating mechanisms = effort, persistence, direction and task strategies.
* One of the most powerful work-related intervention programs.
* Improvement of the action process itself improves performance

Feedback = enhances performance (best coupled with goal setting).

Reinforcement theory - financial interventions, non-financial interventions (performance feedback, social rewards etc) or a combination of all types.
* Positive effect on task performance

Question 14

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Relationship among the perspectives

Perspectives on performance

Answer 14

• Complementary, not mutually exclusive.
• Integrated models needed
• Future models should link: traits + situation -> regulatory proceses (goals, planning, feedback).

Question 15

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Performance in a changing world of work: continuous learning

Answer 15

• Fast technological advancements = learning and competence become increasingly important.
• Adaptive performance (new performance concept) = “learning” consistutes a major performance dimension now.
• In the past learning was viewed as a prerequisite of performance.
• Individuals now go back and forth between the skill acquisition and the maintenance phase.

Question 16

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Performance in a changing world of work: proactivity

Answer 16

• Going beyond prescribed duties.
• Includes - personal initiative, voice, role breadth self-efficacy.
• Becoming more important and might become a predictor of task performance.
• Performing well is no longer sufficient.

Question 17

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Performance in a changing world of work: working in teams

Answer 17

• Organisations become more interested in team performance than individual performance
• Task-related skills and knowledge is not sufficient for teamwork settings.
• Interpersonal and self-management skills and knowledge are regarded to be essential.
• Individual task performance is necessary for high team performance
• Helping is positively related to both quantity and quality aspects of group performance.
• Individual performance translates into team performance via factors of the individual being dependent on each other.

Question 18

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Performance in a changing world of work: globalisation

Answer 18

• Cultural norms affect how performance is perceived.
• Global teams need cultural competence.
• One-size-fits-all systems often fail.

Question 19

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Performance in a changing world of work: technology

Answer 19

• Individual work behaviour/performance is closely linked to the use of technology-based systems.
• Becomes very difficult to separate the technology’s and the individual’s contribution to individual performance.

Question 20

Sonnentag - Performance Concepts and Theory

Conclusion

Answer 20

• Performance = goal-relevant behaviour, measurable, dynamic, and multi-dimensional.
• Requires integration of - individual traits, situational factors and regulatory processes.
• Future research should emphasise = learning and proactivity, team dynamics, global and tech contexts and linking individual level to broader organisational systems.

Question 21

Motowidlo - theory of individual differences in TP and CP

Aim + definition of performance

Introduction

Answer 21

Aim: describes a theory of job performance that assumes that job performance is behavioural, episodic, evaluative and multidimensional.

Job performance: aggregated value to the organisation of the discrete behavioural episodes that an individual performs over a standard interval of time.

Question 22

Motowidlo - theory of individual differences in TP and CP

Performance is a behavioural construct

Basic Assumptions about job performance

Answer 22

Behaviour, performance and results differ:
* Behaviour = what people do while at work.
* Performance = behaviour with an evaluative component (positive/negative/effective).
* Results = states or conditions of people or things that are changed by performance and consequently either contribute to or detract from organisational goal accomplishment.

Model should focus on behaviour and not results, because:
* States or conditions of things or people that are changed by performance are also affected by other extraneous factors not under the individual’s control.
* Behaviour focus is necessary to develop a psychological understanding of selection processes.

Question 23

Motowidlo - theory of individual differences in TP and CP

Performance behaviour is episodic

Basic Assumptions about job performance

Answer 23

• Episodes = occasions when people do something that does make a difference in relation to organisational goals.
• It is not a stream of 8 hours at work, but individual occasions.

Question 24

Motowidlo - theory of individual differences in TP and CP

Performance behaviour episodes are evaluative

Basic Assumptions about job performance

Answer 24

• Only behavioural episodes that make a difference to organisational goal accomplishment are part of the performance domain.
• Behavioural episodes in the performance domain have varying contribution values for the organisation that range from slightly to extremely positive.
• Possible to identify behavioural episodes that are regarded as more or less organisationally desirable even if not explicitly stated.

Question 25

# Motowidlo - theory of individual differences in TP and CP The performance domain is behaviourally multidimensional | Basic Assumptions about job performance

Answer 25

* Overall job performance = the aggregated contribution value of an individual's behavioural episodes over a standard interval of time represents the net worth of that individual's behaviour to the organisation during that time. * Dilemma of aggregating several distinct dimensions * Solution = organise the performance domain into behaviourally homogenous categories and aggregate contribution values seperately for each category.

Question 26

# Motowidlo - theory of individual differences in TP and CP Task and conceptual performance

Answer 26

Task performance: * Direct relation to the orgnaisations' technical core, either by executing its technical processes or by maintaining and servicing its technical requirements. * It is activities that transform raw materials into good and services that are the organisations' products. * It is activities that service and maintain the technical core by replenishing its supply of raw materials (distributing finished products). Contextual performance: * It does not contribute to the organisation's core technical process but it does maintain the braoder organisational, social, and psychological environment in which the technical core must function. * Includes helping and cooperating with others, following rules and procedures, volunteering etc. Conceptual insight: * The motivation behind behaviours matters in both domains.

Question 27

# Motowidlo - theory of individual differences in TP and CP Theoretical framework - how traits influence performance: core idea

Answer 27

Individual differences (cognitive ability and personality) influence job performance (task and contextual) through their effects on knowledge, skills and work habits.

Question 28

Theoretical framework - how traits influence performance: model

Answer 28

Big branches (top and bottom): * Personality = contextual performance * Cognitive = task performance Middle branches (in order): * Contextual work habits = patterns of responses that either facilitate or interfere with effective performance. * Contextual skill = skill in carrying out actions known to be effective for handling situations that call for helping and coordinating with others. * Contextual knowledge = facts, principles and procedures for effective action in situations that call for helling and cooperating with others * Task work habits = patterns of responses to task situations that either facilitate or interfere with performance. * Task skill = skill in using technical information, performing technical procedures, handling information, making judgements, solving problems etc related to core technical functions. * Task knowledge = facts and principles related to functions of the organisation's technical core

Question 29

# Motowidlo - theory of individual differences in TP and CP Theoretical framework - how traits influence performance: predictors of task performance

Answer 29

Cognitive ability and to a lesser extent, personality traits like conscientiousness

Question 30

# Motowidlo - theory of individual differences in TP and CP Theoretical framework - how traits influence performance: predictors of contextual performance

Answer 30

Personality traits such as aggreableness, extraversion and conscientiousness

Question 31

# Motowidlo - theory of individual differences in TP and CP Theoretical framework - how traits influence performance: mediating variables linking traits to performance

Answer 31

Knowledge, skills and work habits

Question 32

# Motowidlo - theory of individual differences in TP and CP Theoretical framework - how traits influence performance: how does cognitive ability influence task performance?

Answer 32

By promoting the development of task knowledge, task skills, and task work habits.

Question 33

# Motowidlo - theory of individual differences in TP and CP Theoretical framework - how traits influence performance: how do personality traits influence contextual performance?

Answer 33

By shaping contextual knowledge, contextual skills, and contextual work habits

Question 34

# Motowidlo - theory of individual differences in TP and CP Theoretical framework - how traits influence performance: what are "characteristic adaptations" in the model?

Answer 34

Learned behaviours like knowledge, skills, and habits that develop through interaction between traits and experience.

Question 35

# Motowidlo - theory of individual differences in TP and CP Theoretical framework - how traits influence performance: are there crossover effects?

Answer 35

Yes (middle two boxes): * Cognitive ability (task performance) affects contextual knowledge (contextual performance). * Personality variables (contextual performance) affects task habits (task performance).

Question 36

# Motowidlo - theory of individual differences in TP and CP Theoretical framework - how traits influence performance: importance of work habits

Answer 36

They explain why people may act against their own knowledge or skills due to ingrained behavioural tendencies

Question 37

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Performance Appraisal (PA)

Answer 37

Processes whereby an individual's work performance is assessed, usually by that person's line manager, and discussed with a view to solving problems, improve performane and developing the individual appraised.

Question 38

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) The two dominant research streams on performance appraisal

Answer 38

1. Rating scale methodologies and rater cognition 2. Organisational justice theory (distributive and procedural justice).

Question 39

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Organisational justice theory | Research on performance appraisal

Answer 39

1. Distributive justice: perceived fairness of assessment and reward. 2. Procedural justice: perceived fairness of the process whereby those assessment and reward decisions are arrived at (having a "voice" -> positive perception)

Question 40

Criticism of performance appraisal

Answer 40

* Focus on psychometric precision has not translated effectively into real-world PA from rating research. * Overlooks motivational dynamics of the appraiser and appraisee. * Appraisal interviews (AIs) remains understudies despite being the core delivery method of PA.

Question 41

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Common appraiser goals for PA | Psychological variables impacting on appraisal

Answer 41

* Protecting subordinates, avoiding confrontation, boosting motivation, and managing perceptions.

Question 42

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Common appraiser reasons for inflated ratings in PA | Psychological variables impacting on appraisal

Answer 42

* Belief that accurate ratings can have damaging effects on motivation and performance. * Desire to improve the subordinate's chances of pay rise. * Wish to avoid other's seeing evidence of internal problems and conflict. * Preventing written record of poor performance (long-term implications). * Protecting subordinates. * Wanting to reward them for effort put in even if not good. * Avoid confrontation and conflict.

Question 43

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Common appraiser reasons for negatively manipulating performance in PA | Psychological variables impacting on appraisal

Answer 43

* Scaring people into performing better * Punishing difficult or non-compliant subordinates * Encouraging unwanted subordinates to leave * Minimising the merit pay awards * Complying with organisational restrictions on the number of higher ratings given

Question 44

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Common appraiser influencing factors for willingness to convey PA | Psychological variables impacting on appraisal

Answer 44

* Confidence in own position = greater openness and honesty (a lack can increase temptation to indulge in manipulative strategies). * Relationship with subordinate * Attributional style = susceptible to such factors as gender bias in appraisers. * Personality = machiavellianism, emotional intelligence (empathy, self-awareness, sensitivity, integrity etc).

Question 45

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Key motivations for the appraisee in PA | Psychological variables impacting on appraisal

Answer 45

* Self-protection * Impression management * Development and growth * Solving job issues * Influencing managerial style * Raising grievances

Question 46

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Key individual differences of appraisees that influence PA experiences | Psychological variables impacting on appraisal

Answer 46

Key individual differences: * Need for achievement * Goal orientation * Self-awareness * Self-esteem * Self-efficacy * Locus of control * Attributional style

Question 47

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Need for achievement | Psychological variables impacting on appraisal ## Footnote Key individual differences of appraisees that influence PA experiences - 7 elements

Answer 47

* A motivation to strive for excellence and mastery. * It influences feedback receptivity, goal preferences and reaction to challenge. 7 elements of appraisee's need for achievement (N.Ach): 1. Work ethic = motivations to achieve based on finding reinforcement in the performance itself; the desire to work hard. 2. Acquisitiveness = motivation based on the reinforcing properties of financial reward. 3. Dominance = desire to lead or to be in a position of dominance. 4. Pursuit of excellence = motivation that finds reward in performing to the best of one's abilities. 5. Competitiveness = enjoyement of competition with the aim of winning. 6. Status aspiration = motivation reinforced by climbing the social hierarchy. 7. Mastery = reinforcement gained from success in the face of difficulty.

Question 48

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Learning goal orientation (LGO) and performance goal orientation (PGO) | Psychological variables impacting on appraisal ## Footnote Key individual differences of appraisees that influence PA experiences

Answer 48

1. LGO: seeks growth and values positive feedback engagement. 2. PGO: focuses on proving competence, imaging maintenance, and may avoid feedback. These affect how appraisees respond to goals and criticisms.

Question 49

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Self-awareness | Psychological variables impacting on appraisal ## Footnote Key individual differences of appraisees that influence PA experiences

Answer 49

* It predicts agreement with others's ratings, better feedback use, and openness to development. * Tied to emotional intelligence.

Question 50

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Self-esteem | Psychological variables impacting on appraisal ## Footnote Key individual differences of appraisees that influence PA experiences

Answer 50

* Affects self-evaluations and feedback interpretation. Theories: * Self-consistence = high self-esteem individuals may interpret feedback positively while low self-esteem individuals may experience defensivenesss or demotivation * Self-enhancement = high self-esteem individuals want positive or constructive feedback while low self-esteem individuals want positive feedback only.

Question 51

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Self-efficacy | Psychological variables impacting on appraisal ## Footnote Key individual differences of appraisees that influence PA experiences

Answer 51

* The belief in one's ability to succeed in tasks. * High self-efficacy predicts greater effort, ambition and use of developmental feedback.

Question 52

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Locus of control | Psychological variables impacting on appraisal ## Footnote Key individual differences of appraisees that influence PA experiences

Answer 52

* Internals prefer control and self-assessment. * Externals are more reliant on external validation and more reactive/sensitive to feedback

Question 53

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Attributional styles | Psychological variables impacting on appraisal ## Footnote Key individual differences of appraisees that influence PA experiences

Answer 53

* Refers to how people explain/interpret success/failures and feedback. * Women often externalise success and show lower self-esteem.

Question 54

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Key components of feedback attitudes | Psychological variables impacting on appraisal ## Footnote Key individual differences of appraisees that influence PA experiences

Answer 54

Propensity is the natural tendency or inclination toward seeking and valuing certain types of feedback: 1. Internal propensity = desire to self-evaluate. 2. Internal ability = confidence in accurate self-evaluation. 3. External propensity = preference for external feedback. Credibility of the source of the feedback is crucial to its acceptance. Internal vs external locus is a fundamental element in attributional style and is the cornerstone of the feedback attitudes.

Question 55

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Relationship between appraiser and appraisee ## Footnote Key factors, liking and interpersonal affect, and rewardingness

Answer 55

Quality of relationship is crucial - affects outcomes more than the appraisal method. Key factors: * Communicaton frequency and openness. * Similarity in attitudes and mutual understanding. * Relationship quality affects how criticism and goal-setting are received. Liking and interpersonal affect: * Supervisors may rate liked subordinates more favorably. * The effect of liking is moderated by availability of clear standards and performance data. Rewardingness: * Appraisals reflect how rewarding an employee is to the supervisor (not necessarily to the organisation) * Influenced by traits like conscientiousness and emotional stability.

Question 56

# Fletcher - Assessing performance (appraisal) Key takeaways

Answer 56

* Performance appraisal effectiveness is shaped more by individual traits and relationships than by technical design. * Success depends on understanding the motivation, feedback preferences, personality traits, and self-perceptions of both appraisers and appraisees. * The appraisal interview is a critical but under-researched element.

Question 57

# Muchinsky - Sources of performance appraisal (PA) information Objective Production Data

Answer 57

* The index of how well an employee is performing (limited in frequency and value) - not a complete measure.

Question 58

# Muchinsky - Sources of performance appraisal (PA) information Problems with OPD | Objective Production Data

Answer 58

* Assumption that different performances between people reflects true differences in performance and therefore "how well someone performs: variability may be due to factors beyond an individuals control and this is a form of criterion contamination (response measure is influenced by factors that are not related to the concept being measured). * It rarely tells the true story: ex: a machine operator who produces more objects but also more defective ones shouldnt be described as the best. This reflects criterion deficiency (deficient measures of the conceptual criteria that they seek to measure.

Question 59

# Muchinsky - Sources of performance appraisal (PA) information Relevance of OPD | Objective Production Data

Answer 59

* Important for every business to have a good output. * The issue is the degree to relevance = its tempting to give it great relevance as the data is easily accessible.

Question 60

# Muchinsky - Sources of performance appraisal (PA) information Personnel data

Answer 60

* Absenteeism and accidents = absences can excused or unexcused and accidents only relevant for certain jobs. * Question: to what extent does this reflect real differences in job performance? * It can lead to discharge of personnel (me lol with AH).

Question 61

# Muchinsky - Sources of performance appraisal (PA) information Rating errors ## Footnote Halo errors (Invalid and valid), leniency errors, and central-tendency errors.

Answer 61

Halo error: evaluations based on the rater's general feelings about an employee. * Favorable attitude toward the employee -> assesses employee as performing well in several dimensions even without having credible knowledge about all of performance dimensions. * Generalisations and carry-over effect. * 2 types: Invalid Halo = a true rating error where one fails to differentiate an employee's performance across different dimensions and Valid Halo = giving uniformly consistent ratings to an employee when these ratings are in fact justified -> truly performs well across all dimensions. Leniency errors: a disproportionately large number of ratees as performing well/poorly in contrasts to their true level of performance. * Positive leniency = evaluations higher than the true level (left skew) * Negative leniency = evaluations below the true level * The type of leniency is typically stable for a person * Most lenient raters were low on conscientiousness and high in agreeableness. Central-tendency error: rater's unwillingness to assign extreme or low ratings. * Everyone is "average".

Question 62

# Muchinsky - Sources of performance appraisal (PA) information Judgemental Data

Answer 62

1. Graphic rating scales 2. Employee-comparison methods: rank order, paired comparison and forced distribution. 3. Behaviour checklists and scales: critical incidents, behaviourally anchored rating scales and behaviour-observation scales.

Question 63

# Muchinsky - Sources of performance appraisal (PA) information Graphic rating scales | Judgemental data

Answer 63

* Most used * Individuals rated on number of traits or factors * The rater judges "how much" of each factor an individual has * 5- or 7- point scales * Commonly rated dimensions: quantity/quality of work, practical judgement, job knowledge, cooperation and motivation.

Question 64

# Muchinsky - Sources of performance appraisal (PA) information Employee-comparison methods | Judgemental data ## Footnote What is it and the three types

Answer 64

* Individuals compared with one-another. * Eliminated central-tendency and leniency errors -> forced to differentiate (however, Halo is possible). * Variation -> creates false impression of large differences when they ar in fact small. Types of employee-comparison methods: * Rank order = high to low, somewhat arbitrary. * Paired comparison = each employee compared with every other employee in the evaluated group (typically used on a single dimension and with less people) * Forced distribution = rater places employee somewhere on the normal distribution curve, most useful in a large sample (forces rater to create a normal distribution, not everyone can be on the highest end).

Question 65

# Muchinsky - Sources of performance appraisal (PA) information Behavioural checklists and scales | Judgemental data

Answer 65

Behaviours are less vague than other factors. * Critical incidents -> good/poor performance (tally or critical behaviours evaluated by the occurence of behaviour) Behaviourally anchored rating scales: combinations of critical incidents and rating scales. * Generation of a critical incidents list * Cluster the incidents into smaller sets of performance dimensions. * Retranslation -> critical incidnets are scrambled and someone else tries to recreate the clusters to see a match in dimensions (if variability is high then its discarded (SD higher than 1.5). * Final form of this is the successfully retranslated incidents and those that met SD criteria. * Advantages = high degrees of person developing the scale and high face validity for both rater and ratee. * Disadvantages = job specific and expectations may deviate based on the context which is not accounted for in the scale. Behavioural-observation scale - also based on critical incidents. * Rater observes the employee on frequency of critical incidents over a period (month). * Advantages of teaching employees desired behaviours.

Question 66

# Muchinsky - Sources of performance appraisal (PA) information Rater training

Answer 66

* Process in which appraisers are taught to make fewer halo, central-tendency, and leniency errors. * Frame-of-reference training: provides raters a common reference standard by which they evaluate performance (vignettes of good, average and bad performance).

Question 67

# Muchinsky - Sources of performance appraisal (PA) information Rater motivation

Answer 67

* Organisationally induced pressure to evaluate more positively * No rewards from organisation for accurate appraisal * High ratings guarantee promotions, salary increase or other rewards. * Ratings of employees is also a reflection of the rater's job performance. * Avoiding stress and defensive reactions * "Appraisal politics"

Question 68

# Muchinsky - Sources of performance appraisal (PA) information When are accurate ratings more likely to occur?

Answer 68

* Good and poor performance is clearly defined. * Distinguishing between workings in terms of level of performance is widely accepted. * High degree in trust in the system * Low ratings do not automatically result in loss of rewards * Valued rewards are clearly linked to accuracy in performance appraisal

Question 69

# Muchinsky - Sources of performance appraisal (PA) information

Question 70

# Muchinsky - Sources of performance appraisal (PA) information